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St. John's wort is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus Hypericum.
Possibly a hybrid between H. maculatum and H. attenuatum, the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for possible therapeutic properties. (Wikipedia)
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Another introduced species that brightens up the paths and trails around Ottawa.
NCC Trail 10, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. July 2022.
“Blue thou art, intensely blue; Flower, whence came thy dazzling hue?” – James Montgomery
Feijão Borboleta/ Blue butterfly pea flower, is a plant belonging to the bean and pea family. Originally from regions of Tropical Asia, but currently it can be found in several regions of South and Central America, India, China and Southeast Asia.
A striking feature of butterfly bean flowers is their color, an intense blue that makes the flower very striking, but in some cultivars, the flower can be completely white.
It is a perennial vine and can be grown in small pots as an ornamental plant, developing quickly and flowering most of the time of its life.
In folk medicine, butterfly beans have been used to treat throat and eye infections, fever, indigestion, baldness, stress, strengthening memory, among other applications. Rich in phytochemicals, the infusion of flowers is hepatoprotective and antidiabetic and the juice is used in Ayurvedic medicine to cure insect bites and skin diseases.
In the kitchen, the plant also has numerous applications, the leaves, pods and flowers being the parts used in the butterfly bean. However, the flower is the most used part, being used in the preparation of various blue foods, such as refreshments, teas, soups, ice cream, rice, among others.
This is the only time of year these plants look pretty. Here's what the Internet says
The fruit of prickly pears, commonly called cactus fruit, cactus fig, Indian[8] fig, nopales[9] or tuna in Spanish,[10] is edible, although it must be peeled carefully to remove the small spines on the outer skin before consumption. If the outer layer is not properly removed, glochids can be ingested, causing discomfort of the throat, lips, and tongue, as the small spines are easily lodged in the skin. Native Americans, like the Tequesta, would roll the fruit around in a suitable medium (e.g. grit) to "sand" off the glochids. Alternatively, rotating the fruit in the flame of a campfire or torch has been used to remove the glochids. Today, parthenocarpic (seedless) cultivars are also available.
In Mexico, prickly pears are often used to make appetizers, soups, and salads through entrees, vegetable dishes, and breads to desserts, beverages, candy, jelly, or drinks. The young stem segments, usually called nopales, are also edible in most species of Opuntia.[9] They are commonly used in Mexican cuisine in dishes such as huevos con nopales (eggs with nopal), or tacos de nopales. Nopales are also an important ingredient in New Mexican cuisine.
Opuntia contains a range of phytochemicals in variable quantities, such as polyphenols, dietary minerals and betalains. Identified compounds under basic research include gallic acid, vanillic acid and catechins, as examples.[14] The Sicilian prickly pear contains betalain, betanin, and indicaxanthin, with highest levels in their fruits.[16]
In Mexican folk medicine, its pulp and juice are considered treatments for wounds and inflammation of the digestive and urinary tracts.[17]
CATALÀ
Hipèric (Hypericum) és un gènere de plantes amb flors que té unes 400 espècies, la més coneguda és el pericó o herba de Sant Joan, (Hypericum perforatum), que es troba també als Països Catalans. També l'estepa joana de les Balears és un hipèric. Abans, aquest gènere es considerava una subfamília de la família Clusiaceae).
Aquest gènere té una distribució gairebé cosmopolita, mancant només en les terres baixes tropicals, els deserts i les regions polars.
Les plantes del gènere hipèric varien d'herbàcies anuals o perennes de 5–10 cm d'alt a arbusts o petits arbres de 12 m d'alt. Les fulles tenen la disposició oposada, ovals i simples d'1–8 cm de llarg, ja sigui caducifòlies o persistents. Les flors varien de groc pàl·lid a fosc i d'un diàmetre de 0,5–6 cm, els pètals són cinc i rarament quatre. El fruit normalment és una càpsula seca amb moltes llavors petites; en algunes espècies, el fruit és carnós i similar a una baia.
ENGLISH
Hypericum perforatum, known as St. John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus Hypericum.
Possibly a hybrid between H. maculatum and H. attenuatum, the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for its possible biological properties.
WIKIPEDIA
CATALÀ
Hipèric (Hypericum) és un gènere de plantes amb flors que té unes 400 espècies, la més coneguda és el pericó o herba de Sant Joan, (Hypericum perforatum), que es troba també als Països Catalans. També l'estepa joana de les Balears és un hipèric. Abans, aquest gènere es considerava una subfamília de la família Clusiaceae).
Aquest gènere té una distribució gairebé cosmopolita, mancant només en les terres baixes tropicals, els deserts i les regions polars.
Les plantes del gènere hipèric varien d'herbàcies anuals o perennes de 5–10 cm d'alt a arbusts o petits arbres de 12 m d'alt. Les fulles tenen la disposició oposada, ovals i simples d'1–8 cm de llarg, ja sigui caducifòlies o persistents. Les flors varien de groc pàl·lid a fosc i d'un diàmetre de 0,5–6 cm, els pètals són cinc i rarament quatre. El fruit normalment és una càpsula seca amb moltes llavors petites; en algunes espècies, el fruit és carnós i similar a una baia.
ENGLISH
Hypericum perforatum, known as St. John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus Hypericum.
Possibly a hybrid between H. maculatum and H. attenuatum, the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for its possible biological properties.
WIKIPEDIA
Rosenkohl ist gesund und nahrhaft. So enthalten 100 Gramm gekochter Rosenkohl lediglich 30 kcal/124 kJ, liefern zugleich aber viele wichtige Nährstoffe. Das Kreuzblütler-Gemüse hat einen hohen Vitamingehalt (hauptsächlich Vitamin A und C), ist reich an Mineralstoffen (Eisen, Kalium, Kalzium und Magnesium) und enthält Glukosinolate, die als sekundärer Pflanzenstoff das Risiko für eine Reihe von Krebserkrankungen senken.
Brussels sprouts are healthy and nutritious. 100 grams of cooked Brussels sprouts contain only 30 kcal/124 kJ, but at the same time provide many important nutrients. The cruciferous vegetable is high in vitamins (mainly vitamins A and C), rich in minerals (iron, potassium, calcium and magnesium) and contains glucosinolates, which are phytochemicals that reduce the risk of a number of cancers.
Common St John's-wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus Hypericum.
Possibly a hybrid between H. maculatum and H. attenuatum, the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for its possible biological properties.
Morris Island Conservation Area, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. July 2014.
Note: Some wild and crazy things. This image was uploaded here, but never showed up. However, it did appear in Wildlife of the West. You may or may not see your comments here, but give it a shot.
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Wildflowers of the West 12: If you go into the mountains of the west, especially in the more arid parts of the Sierras like the southern portion of Sequoia National Park, you're sure to come across Salvia Pachyphylla. Look on hillsides above the 3,000 foot level for this flower. You can't miss it unless you're paying more attention to the 2500 foot drop off the 24" wide trail. (flic.kr/p/SFxQBf)
Salvia pachyphylla, Blue sage, Mountain desert sage, is a perennial shrub native to California, Nevada, and Arizona. In California, it grows between 5,000 to 10,000 ft elevation on dry rocky slopes, blooming from July to September. It reaches 1 to 2 ft high, with blue-violet flowers, rarely rose, growing in dense clusters.
Beneficial? In the course of a study of the chemical composition of the flora used in Latin American traditional medicine, Ivan C. Guerrero and coworkers have performed phytochemical studies of extracts of the aerial parts from Salvia pachyphylla and Salvia clevelandii. The major secondary metabolites were isolated from these species and the in vitro cytotoxic effects against five human cancer cells were reported for eight of the compounds obtained.
(Take a look at my Sequoia album. It's not extensive, but the views are spectacular and the wildlife won't disappoint. www.flickr.com/photos/ethanwinning/albums/721577156489556...)
#AbFav_summer
Red fruits and vegetables, such as strawberries, raspberries, cherries, are in a group containing phytochemicals that are powerful antioxidants that help control high blood pressure and protect against diabetes-related circulatory and cancer.
Thank you for ALL your faves and comments, M, (* _ *)
A MUST LARGE and View On Black
For more of my other work visit here: www.indigo2photography.com
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Wildflowers of the West 12: If you go into the mountains of the west, especially in the more arid parts of the Sierras like the southern portion of Sequoia National Park, you're sure to come across Salvia Pachyphylla. Look on hillsides above the 3,000 foot level for this flower. You can't miss it unless you're paying more attention to the 2500 foot drop off the 24" wide trail. (flic.kr/p/SFxQBf)
Salvia pachyphylla, Blue sage, Mountain desert sage, is a perennial shrub native to California, Nevada, and Arizona. In California, it grows between 5,000 to 10,000 ft elevation on dry rocky slopes, blooming from July to September. It reaches 1 to 2 ft high, with blue-violet flowers, rarely rose, growing in dense clusters.
Beneficial? In the course of a study of the chemical composition of the flora used in Latin American traditional medicine, Ivan C. Guerrero and coworkers have performed phytochemical studies of extracts of the aerial parts from Salvia pachyphylla and Salvia clevelandii. The major secondary metabolites were isolated from these species and the in vitro cytotoxic effects against five human cancer cells were reported for eight of the compounds obtained.
(Take a look at my Sequoia album. It's not extensive, but the views are spectacular and the wildlife won't disappoint. www.flickr.com/photos/ethanwinning/albums/721577156489556...)
Although lemons and limes may not be what you would choose for an afternoon snack, we consider them as powerhouses when we want to bring out the flavor of other foods. While both are available throughout the year, lemons are in the peak of their season around May, June and August while limes are at their peak from May through October.
Lemons are oval in shape and feature a yellow, texturized outer peel. Like other citrus fruits, their inner flesh is encased in eight to ten segments.
Health benefits of lemon
Lemons are packed with numerous health benefiting nutrients. The fruit is less in calories, carrying just 29 calories per 100 g, the value being one of the lowest for the citrus fruits group.
They contain zero saturated fats or cholesterol. Nonetheless are an excellent source of dietary fiber (7.36% of RDA). Lemon is one of the very low glycemic fruits.
lemon's acidic taste is because of citric acid. Citric acid constitutes up to 8% in its juice. Citric acid is a natural preservative, aids in smooth digestion, and helps dissolve kidney stones.
Lemons, like other fellow citrus fruits, are an excellent source of vitamin-C (ascorbic acid); provides about 88% of daily recommended intake. Ascorbic acid is a potent water-soluble natural anti-oxidant. This vitamin is helpful in preventing scurvy. Besides, consumption of foods rich in vitamin-C helps the human body develop resistance against infectious agents and scavenge harmful, pro-inflammatory free radicals from the blood.
Lemons, like oranges, contain a variety of phytochemicals. Hesperetin, naringin, and naringenin are flavonoid glycosides commonly found in citrus fruits. Naringenin is found to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, anti-inflammatory, and immune system modulator. This substance has also been shown to reduce oxidant injury to DNA in the cells in-vitro studies.
Additionally, they also compose a minute levels of vitamin A, and other flavonoid antioxidants such as α, and ß-carotenes, ß-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein. These compounds are known to have antioxidant properties. Vitamin A also required for maintaining healthy mucosa and skin and is also essential for vision. Consumption of natural fruits rich in flavonoids helps the body to protect from lung and oral cavity cancers.
Total ORAC value, which measures the antioxidant strength of 100 g of fresh lemon juice is 1225 µmol TE (Trolox equivalents).
The fruit is also a good source of B-complex vitamins such as pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, and folates. These essential in the sense that body requires them from external sources to replenish.
Further, they carry a healthy amount of minerals like iron, copper, potassium, and calcium. Potassium in an important component of cell and body fluids helps control heart rate and blood pressure.
Citrus fruits, as such, have long been valued for their wholesome nutritious and antioxidant properties. It is a scientific fact that citrus fruits, especially lemons and oranges, by their richness in vitamins and minerals, have many proven health benefits. Moreover, it is now beginning to be appreciated that the other biologically active, non-nutrient compounds found in citrus fruits such as phytochemical antioxidants, and soluble as well as the insoluble dietary fiber is helpful in reduction in the risk for cancers, many chronic diseases like arthritis, and from obesity and coronary heart diseases.
*explwhore* #175
Vegetables have different phytochemicals—which are important additions to the essential nutrients each day—depending on their color.
For National Nutrition Month, we wanted to depict a rainbow of phytochemicals to go with a blog post. We found a bunch of veggie rainbows online, but I told someone we could do this ourselves, with on-plan vegetables, so one of the nutrition people went shopping before work on Monday and brought these things.
I'm not a good photo stylist, but I wanted a swash, not an actual rainbow, so that's really what I made—a swash of color.
It is NOT phallic. If you see that, it's because someone put that suggestion in your head. Someone who is not nice. Someone who has problems. Issues.
So just stop it. It's a really pretty picture. Go away.
SN/NC: Ribes rubrum, Fam. Grossulariaceae, Red currant, grosellero, groselheiro
The redcurrant or red currant is a member of the genus Ribes in the gooseberry family. It is native to western Europe. The species is widely cultivated and has escaped into the wild in many regions. There are several other similar species native in Europe, Asia and North America, also with edible fruit. These include Ribes spicatum (northern Europe and northern Asia), Ribes alpinum (northern Europe), R. schlechtendalii (northeast Europe), R. multiflorum (southeast Europe), R. petraeum (southwest Europe) and R. triste (North America; Newfoundland to Alaska and southward in mountains). While Ribes rubrum is native to Europe, large berried cultivars of the redcurrant were first produced in Belgium and northern France in the 17th century. In modern times, numerous cultivars have been selected; some of these have escaped gardens and can be found in the wild across Europe and extending into Asia. Redcurrant fruits are known for their tart flavor, a characteristic provided by a relatively high content of organic acids and mixed polyphenols. As many as 65 different phenolic compounds may contribute to the astringent properties of redcurrants, with these contents increasing during the last month of ripening. Twenty-five individual polyphenols and other nitrogen-containing phytochemicals in redcurrant juice have been isolated specifically with the astringent flavor profile sensed in the human tongue.
A groselha ou groselha vermelha é um membro do gênero Ribes na família da groselha. É nativo da Europa Ocidental. A espécie é amplamente cultivada e escapou para a natureza em muitas regiões. Existem várias outras espécies semelhantes nativas da Europa, Ásia e América do Norte, também com frutos comestíveis. Estes incluem Ribes spicatum (norte da Europa e norte da Ásia), Ribes alpinum (norte da Europa), R. schlechtendalii (nordeste da Europa), R. multiflorum (sudeste da Europa), R. petraeum (sudoeste da Europa) e R. triste (América do Norte; Terra Nova ao Alasca e ao sul nas montanhas). Enquanto Ribes rubrum é nativo da Europa, grandes cultivares de groselha foram produzidas pela primeira vez na Bélgica e no norte da França no século XVII. Nos tempos modernos, várias cultivares foram selecionadas; alguns deles escaparam dos jardins e podem ser encontrados na natureza em toda a Europa e se estendendo até a Ásia. As frutas de groselha são conhecidas por seu sabor azedo, característica proporcionada por um teor relativamente alto de ácidos orgânicos e polifenóis mistos.
La grosella roja o grosella roja es un miembro del género Ribes en la familia de las grosellas. Es originaria de Europa occidental. La especie se cultiva ampliamente y se ha escapado a la naturaleza en muchas regiones. Hay varias otras especies similares nativas de Europa, Asia y América del Norte, también con frutos comestibles. Estos incluyen Ribes spicatum (norte de Europa y norte de Asia), Ribes alpinum (norte de Europa), R. schlechtendalii (noreste de Europa), R. multiflorum (sureste de Europa), R. petraeum (suroeste de Europa) y R. triste (Norteamérica); Terranova a Alaska y hacia el sur en las montañas). Si bien la Ribes rubrum es originaria de Europa, en el siglo XVII se produjeron por primera vez en Bélgica y el norte de Francia cultivos de grosella roja con bayas grandes. En los tiempos modernos, se han seleccionado numerosos cultivares; algunos de estos han escapado de los jardines y se pueden encontrar en la naturaleza en toda Europa y extendiéndose hasta Asia. Las frutas de grosella roja son conocidas por su sabor agrio, una característica proporcionada por un contenido relativamente alto de ácidos orgánicos y polifenoles mixtos.
Il ribes rosso o ribes rosso è un membro del genere Ribes nella famiglia dell'uva spina. È originario dell'Europa occidentale. La specie è ampiamente coltivata ed è fuggita in natura in molte regioni. Esistono diverse altre specie simili originarie dell'Europa, dell'Asia e del Nord America, anche con frutti commestibili. Questi includono Ribes spicatum (Europa settentrionale e Asia settentrionale), Ribes alpinum (Europa settentrionale), R. schlechtendalii (Europa nord-orientale), R. multiflorum (Europa sud-orientale), R. petraeum (Europa sud-occidentale) e R. triste (America settentrionale; Terranova in Alaska e verso sud in montagna). Sebbene il Ribes rubrum sia originario dell'Europa, le grandi cultivar di ribes rosso a bacca furono prodotte per la prima volta in Belgio e nel nord della Francia nel XVII secolo. In tempi moderni sono state selezionate numerose cultivar; alcuni di questi sono sfuggiti ai giardini e possono essere trovati allo stato brado in tutta Europa e si estendono in Asia. I frutti di ribes rosso sono noti per il loro sapore aspro, una caratteristica data da un contenuto relativamente alto di acidi organici e polifenoli misti.
Die Johannisbeere oder Johannisbeere ist ein Mitglied der Gattung Ribes in der Familie der Stachelbeeren. Sie ist in Westeuropa beheimatet. Die Art wird weithin kultiviert und ist in vielen Regionen in die Wildnis entkommen. Es gibt mehrere andere ähnliche Arten, die in Europa, Asien und Nordamerika beheimatet sind und ebenfalls essbare Früchte tragen. Dazu gehören Ribes spicatum (Nordeuropa und Nordasien), Ribes alpinum (Nordeuropa), R. schlechtendalii (Nordosteuropa), R. multiflorum (Südosteuropa), R. petraeum (Südwesteuropa) und R. triste (Nordamerika). ; Neufundland bis Alaska und südlich in die Berge). Obwohl Ribes rubrum in Europa beheimatet ist, wurden große Beerensorten der roten Johannisbeere erstmals im 17. Jahrhundert in Belgien und Nordfrankreich produziert. In der Neuzeit wurden zahlreiche Sorten ausgewählt; Einige von ihnen sind aus Gärten entkommen und können in ganz Europa und bis nach Asien in freier Wildbahn gefunden werden. Rote Johannisbeeren sind für ihren scharfen Geschmack bekannt, der durch einen relativ hohen Gehalt an organischen Säuren und gemischten Polyphenolen gekennzeichnet ist.
La groseille ou groseille rouge fait partie du genre Ribes dans la famille des groseilles. Il est originaire d'Europe occidentale. L'espèce est largement cultivée et s'est échappée dans la nature dans de nombreuses régions. Il existe plusieurs autres espèces similaires originaires d'Europe, d'Asie et d'Amérique du Nord, également avec des fruits comestibles. Ceux-ci comprennent Ribes spicatum (Europe du Nord et Asie du Nord), Ribes alpinum (Europe du Nord), R. schlechtendalii (Europe du Nord-Est), R. multiflorum (Europe du Sud-Est), R. petraeum (Europe du Sud-Ouest) et R. triste (Amérique du Nord) ; de Terre-Neuve à l'Alaska et vers le sud dans les montagnes). Alors que Ribes rubrum est originaire d'Europe, les cultivars à grandes baies de la groseille ont été produits pour la première fois en Belgique et dans le nord de la France au 17ème siècle. Dans les temps modernes, de nombreux cultivars ont été sélectionnés ; certains d'entre eux se sont échappés des jardins et peuvent être trouvés à l'état sauvage à travers l'Europe et s'étendant jusqu'en Asie. Les fruits de la groseille sont connus pour leur saveur acidulée, caractéristique apportée par une teneur relativement élevée en acides organiques et en polyphénols mixtes.
De aalbes of aalbes is een lid van het geslacht Ribes in de kruisbesfamilie. Het is inheems in West-Europa. De soort wordt op grote schaal gekweekt en is in veel regio's in het wild ontsnapt. Er zijn verschillende andere vergelijkbare soorten die inheems zijn in Europa, Azië en Noord-Amerika, ook met eetbaar fruit. Deze omvatten Ribes spicatum (Noord-Europa en Noord-Azië), Ribes alpinum (Noord-Europa), R. schlechtendalii (Noordoost-Europa), R. multiflorum (Zuidoost-Europa), R. petraeum (Zuidwest-Europa) en R. triste (Noord-Amerika; Newfoundland naar Alaska en zuidwaarts in de bergen). Hoewel Ribes rubrum inheems is in Europa, werden in de 17e eeuw voor het eerst grote bessenrassen van de rode bes geproduceerd in België en Noord-Frankrijk. In de moderne tijd zijn er talloze cultivars geselecteerd; sommige van deze zijn ontsnapt uit tuinen en zijn in het wild te vinden in heel Europa en strekken zich uit tot in Azië. Rode bessen staan bekend om hun scherpe smaak, een kenmerk van een relatief hoog gehalte aan organische zuren en gemengde polyfenolen.
الكشمش الأحمر أو الكشمش الأحمر هو عضو في جنس ريبس في عائلة عنب الثعلب. موطنها أوروبا الغربية. يُزرع هذا النوع على نطاق واسع وقد هرب إلى البرية في العديد من المناطق. هناك العديد من الأنواع الأخرى المماثلة في أوروبا وآسيا وأمريكا الشمالية ، بالإضافة إلى الفاكهة الصالحة للأكل. وتشمل هذه Ribes spicatum (شمال أوروبا وشمال آسيا) و Ribes alpinum (شمال أوروبا) و R. schlechtendalii (شمال شرق أوروبا) و R. multiflorum (جنوب شرق أوروبا) و R. petraeum (جنوب غرب أوروبا) و R. triste (أمريكا الشمالية ؛ نيوفاوندلاند إلى ألاسكا وجنوبًا في الجبال). في حين أن Ribes rubrum هي موطنها الأصلي في أوروبا ، فقد تم إنتاج أصناف التوت الكبيرة من الكشمش الأحمر لأول مرة في بلجيكا وشمال فرنسا في القرن السابع عشر. في العصر الحديث ، تم اختيار العديد من الأصناف ؛ وقد هرب بعضها من الحدائق ويمكن العثور عليها في البرية عبر أوروبا وتمتد إلى آسيا. تشتهر ثمار الكشمش الأحمر بطعمها اللاذع ، وهي خاصية توفرها نسبة عالية نسبيًا من الأحماض العضوية والبوليفينول المختلط.
赤スグリまたは赤スグリは、グーズベリー科のリブス属のメンバーです。西ヨーロッパ原産です。この種は広く栽培されており、多くの地域で野生に逃げてきました。ヨーロッパ、アジア、北アメリカに自生する他のいくつかの同様の種があり、これも食用の果物です。これらには、Ribes spicatum（北ヨーロッパおよび北アジア）、Ribes alpinum（北ヨーロッパ）、R。schlechtendalii（北東ヨーロッパ）、R。multiflorum（南東ヨーロッパ）、R。petraeum（南西ヨーロッパ）、およびR. triste（北アメリカ;ニューファウンドランドからアラスカ、そして南の山々）。 Ribes rubrumはヨーロッパ原産ですが、フサスグリの大型のベリー栽培品種は、17世紀にベルギーとフランス北部で最初に生産されました。現代では、多くの品種が選択されています。これらのいくつかは庭から逃げ出し、ヨーロッパ中の野生で見つけられ、アジアに広がっています。フサスグリの果実は、有機酸と混合ポリフェノールの比較的高い含有量によって提供される特徴であるタルトフレーバーで知られています。
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_hawthorn
Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of hawthorn native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced in many other parts of the world where it is an invasive weed. Other common names include may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw. This species is one of several that have been referred to as Crataegus oxyacantha, a name that has been rejected by the botanical community as too ambiguous.
Description
The Common Hawthorn is a shrub or small tree 5–14 m tall, with a dense crown. The bark is dull brown with vertical orange cracks. The younger stems bear sharp thorns, 1 to 1.5 cm long. The leaves are 2–4 cm long, obovate and deeply lobed, sometimes almost to the midrib, with the lobes spreading at a wide angle. The upper surface is dark green above and paler underneath.
The hermaphrodite flowers are produced in late spring (May to early June in its native area) in corymbs of 5-25 together; each flower is about 1 cm diameter, and has five white petals, numerous red stamens, and a single style; they are moderately fragrant. They are pollinated by midges, bees and other insects and later in the year bear numerous haws. The haw is a small, oval dark red fruit about 1 cm long, berry-like, but structurally a pome containing a single seed. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse the seeds in their droppings.
It is distinguished from the related but less widespread Midland Hawthorn (C. laevigata) by its more upright growth, the leaves being deeply lobed, with spreading lobes, and in the flowers having just one style, not two or three. However they are inter-fertile and hybrids occur frequently; they are only entirely distinct in their more typical forms.
Uses
Medicinal use
Crataegus monogyna is one of the most common species used as the "hawthorn" of traditional herbalism, which is of considerable interest for treating cardiac insufficiency by evidence-based medicine. The plant parts used medicinally are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit. Several species of Crataegus have both traditional and modern medicinal uses. It is a good source of antioxidant phytochemicals,especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers.
In gardening and agriculture
Common Hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively stock and human proof with some basic maintenance. The traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practised with this species. It is a good fire wood which burns with a good heat and little smoke.[3]
Numerous hybrids exist, some of which are used as garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is C. × media (C. monogyna × C. laevigata), of which several cultivars are known, including the very popular 'Paul's Scarlet' with dark pink double flowers. Other garden shrubs that have sometimes been suggested as possible hybrids involving the Common Hawthorn[citation needed], include the Various-leaved Hawthorn of the Caucasus, which is only very occasionally found in parks and gardens.
Edible "berries", petals, and leaves
The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw but are commonly made into jellies, jams, and syrups, used to make wine, or to add flavour to brandy. Botanically they are pomes, but they look similar to berries. A haw is small and oblong, similar in size and shape to a small olive or grape, and red when ripe. Haws develop in groups of 2-3 along smaller branches. They are pulpy and delicate in taste. In this species (C. monogyna) they have only one seed, but in other species of hawthorn there may be up to 5 seeds.
Petals are also edible,[4] as are the leaves, which if picked in spring when still young are tender enough to be used in salads.
Notable trees
An ancient specimen, and reputedly the oldest tree of any species in France, is to be found alongside the church at Saint Mars sur la Futaie, Mayenne [1]. The tree has a height of 9 m, and a girth of 2.65 m (2009). The inscription on the plaque beneath reads: "This hawthorn is probably the oldest tree in France. Its origin goes back to St Julien (3rd century)", but such claims are impossible to verify.
A famous specimen in England was the Glastonbury or Holy Thorn which, according to legend, sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea after he thrust it into the ground whilst visiting Glastonbury in the 1st century AD. The tree was noteworthy because it flowered twice in a year, once in the late spring which is normal, but also once after the harshness of midwinter has passed. The original tree at Glastonbury Abbey, felled in 1640s during the English Civil War,[2] has been propagated as the cultivar 'Biflora'.[6] A replacement was planted by the local council in 1951, but was cut down by vandals in 2010. [3]
The oldest known living specimen in East Anglia, and possibly in the United Kingdom, is known as "The Hethel Old Thorn",[7] and is located in the churchyard in the small village of Hethel, south of Norwich, in Norfolk. It is reputed to be more than 700 years old, having been planted in the 13th century.
#AbFav_MACRO
I found this out today, that cauliflower is low in fat, high in dietary fibre, folate, water and vitamin C, possessing a very high nutritional density.
As a member of the brassica family, cauliflower shares with broccoli and cabbage several phytochemicals which are beneficial to our health, including sulforaphane, an anti-cancer compound released when cauliflower is chopped or chewed.
Boiling reduces the levels of anti-cancer compounds, with losses of 20–30% after five minutes, 40–50% after ten minutes, and 75% after thirty minutes.
However, other preparation methods such as steaming, micro waving, and stir frying had no significant effect on the compounds.
Along with other brassica vegetables, cauliflower is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells and appears to block the growth of cancer cells.
The compound also appears to work as an anti-oestrogen, appearing to slow or prevent the growth of tumours of the breast and prostate.
Cauliflower also contains other glucosinolates besides sulfurophane, substances which may improve the liver's ability to detoxify carcinogenic substances.
A high intake of cauliflower has been found to reduce the risk of aggressive prostate cancer.
Wishing you well and stay safe .
Have a wonderful day, filled with love and beauty, M, (*_*)
For more: www.indigo2photography.com
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cauliflower, vegetable, florets, stalk, leaves, white, "Brassica oleracea", food, edible, detail, black-background, colour, studio, square, "magda indigo"
Fruit is one of the most healthy and natural foods in existence. There are thousands of different types of fruit available to eat, all of which provide us with strong health benefits. Fruit contains a large number of naturally occurring vitamins, minerals and plant phytochemicals that help benefit health. It has also been shown that eating the whole fruit is best to gain the benefits rather than taking supplements to provide each nutrient separately.
Health benefits of eating fruit...
•potential for weight control
•more energy for exercising
•reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases
•reduced risk of developing cancers
•lower blood pressure
•potential to lower cholesterol
•reduced change of developing type 2 diabetes
•potential to slow down age process
Don’t forget to eat your 5 servings of fruit today! :)
Hypericum perforatum, known as perforate St John's-wort, common Saint John's wort and St John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae. St. John's wort has been used in alternative medicine as a likely effective aid in treating mild to moderate depression and related symptoms such as anxiety or insomnia. Study results on the effectiveness of St. John’s wort for depression have been mixed. Since St. John’s wort causes drug interactions, it might not be an appropriate choice for many people, particularly those who take other medications. The plant is poisonous to livestock. The primary phytochemical constituents of St John's wort are hyperforin and hypericin.
Aparelhagem para extração líquida à quente, de principios ativos de plantas por exemplo.
O aparelho Soxhlet possui um sifão que proporciona o refluxo contínuo do solvente.
O material bruto pulverizado é colocado num cartucho de celulose, dentro do Soxhlet. O balão conectado abaixo recebe aquecimento de uma manta elétrica, fazendo com que o solvente evapore, condense no condensador de bolas (acima e com sistema de refrigeração) passe para o Soxhlet - proceda a extração - e uma vez atingido o nível no sifão, retorne para o balão re iniciando o processo.
A extração ocorre normalmente por centenas de ciclos, o que corresponde às vezes a vários dias de trabalho.
O princípio ativo desejado é resgatado da solução final do balão, a qual é concentrada em evaporador rotativo, a baixa pressão.
______________________________________________
Equipment for the hot liquid extraction of active ingredients from plants for example.
The unit has a Soxhlet siphon that provides the continuous reflux of the solvent.
The powdered material is placed in a cartridge of cellulose within the Soxhlet. The balloon gets logged under a blanket electric heating, causing the solvent evaporation, than, condenses in the condenser of balls (above and cooling system) go to the Soxhlet - to extract - and once reached the level in the siphon, return for the balloon re-starting the process.
The extraction is usually in hundreds of cycles, which is sometimes several days to work.
The drug is rescued from the desired final solution of the balloon, which is concentrated in evaporator, the low pressure.
I´m sorry for my poor english...
found this big plant along the waters edge by the pond, soil acidity must be quite low, because these plants like neutral to alkaline soils.
Prunella vulgaris, the common self-heal, heal-all, woundwort, heart-of-the-earth, carpenter's herb, brownwort or blue curls,[2][3][4][5] is a herbaceous plant in the mint family Lamiaceae.
Self-heal is edible:[2] the young leaves and stems can be eaten raw in salads; the plant as a whole can be boiled and eaten as a leaf vegetable; and the aerial parts of the plant can be powdered and brewed in a cold infusion to make a beverage.[2]
Description
Closeup of flowers
Prunella vulgaris grows 5–30 cm (2.0–11.8 in) high,[6] with creeping, self-rooting, tough, square, reddish stems branching at the leaf axes.[7]
The leaves are lance-shaped, serrated and reddish at the tip, about 2.5 cm (0.98 in) long and 1.5 cm (0.59 in) broad, and growing in opposite pairs down the square stem.[7] Each leaf has 3-7 veins that shoot off the middle vein to the margin. The stalks of the leaves are generally short, but can be up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long.[8]
Kleine Braunelle, Blüte.jpg
The flowers grow from a clublike, somewhat square, whirled cluster; immediately below this club is a pair of stalkless leaves standing out on either side like a collar. The flowers are two-lipped and tubular. The top lip is a purple hood, and the bottom lip is often white; it has three lobes, with the middle lobe being larger and fringed upwardly. Flowers bloom at different times depending on climate and other conditions, but mostly in summer (from June to August in the USA).[7]
Self-heal propagates both by seed and vegetatively by creeping stems that root at the nodes.[9]
Two subspecies of Prunella vulgaris have been identified: var. vulgaris and var. lanceolota. [10][11]
Habitat
Prunella vulgaris is a perennial herb native in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, and is common in most temperate climates.[2] It was introduced to many countries in the 1800s and has become invasive in the Pacific Islands, including Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii.[2][12] In Ireland, it is generally abundant.[13][14] This herb also grows in Kashmir where it is known as kalyuth. It is boiled in water, which used to wash and bathe in order to relieve muscle pain.[15]
It grows on roadsides, gardens, waste-places,[13] and woodland edges, and usually in basic and neutral soils.[7][16]
Uses
P. vulgaris var lanceolata
Prunella vulgaris is edible, and can be used in salads, soups, stews, and boiled as a pot herb.[17][18]
The herb, which is called xia ku cao (夏枯草) in Chinese, is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat dizziness, red eyes, dry cough, and dermatitis and boils.[19] It is also a main ingredient in several herbal teas in southern China, including commercial beverages such as Wong Lo Kat.[20]
The Nlaka'pamux drink a cold infusion of the whole plant as a common beverage.[21] The plant is traditionally used by some Indigenous cultures to treat various physical ailments.[22]
Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals include betulinic acid, D-camphor, D-fenchone, cyanidin, delphinidin, hyperoside, manganese, lauric acid, oleanolic acid, rosmarinic acid, myristic acid, rutin, linoleic acid, ursolic acid, beta-sitosterol, lupeol, and tannins.[23][24]
Etymology
Prunella is derived from 'Brunella', a word which is itself a derivative, taken from "die Bräune", the German name for quinsy (a type of throat inflammation), which Prunella was historically used to cure.[25] Vulgaris means 'usual', 'common', or 'vulgar'.[25]
Self-heal and heal-all refer to its uses in traditional medicine
CATALÀ
El pericó o herba de Sant Joan (Hypericum perforatum) és una planta herbàcia de la família de les clusiàcies, abans anomenada Hipericàcies. Aquesta planta està present a bona part d'Europa, Àfrica, l'Àsia occidental i zones temperades de la resta del món, deserts i regions antàrtiques. S'importa de l'antiga URSS, Bulgària, Hongria i Romania. Es troba distribuïda àmpliament als Països Catalans.
És una espècie herbàcia perenne de 30 a 60 cm d'alçada. Presenta un rizoma que es fa més prim prop del final de la planta, i té una Arrel axonomorfa i fusiforme d'on surten tiges llenyoses de la base de color verd-groguenc a vermellós, erectes i cilíndriques amb dues línies prominents al costat. Les fulles (1,5-4 cm) són lanceolades, oposades, de marge sencer, sèssils i amb pigues translúcides que són glàndules plenes d'oli essencial i travessen la fulla del revers a l'anvers. A l'anvers de les fulles es veu un nervi mig molt prominent. Als cantons d'aquestes fulles es poden observar uns petits punts glandulosos foscos. Les flors són pentàmeres, estrellades,hermafrodites, disposades en cimes dicotòmiques, reunides en una panícula terminal. El calze té 5 sèpals d'apendix puntxegut, llisos, amb el marge serrat a la punta i amb glangules clares i obscures als dos costats del nervi mitjà. Els 5 pètals són grocs i també porten glàndules secretores als cantons. L'androceu es compon d'estams molt nombrosos i definits, amb filaments i anteres grogues amb un puntet negre molt perceptible i amb un pistil que remata amb tres estils molt ben individualitzats. El gineceu és súper amb 2 o 3 carpels soldats. La inflorescència és un corimbe i el fruit una càpsula ovoide de 3 càmares que poden ser ovals o triangulars. Les llavors són cilíndriques d'1-3 mm de longitud i amb la superfície coberta de petites berrugues i de color marró fosc o negre.
VIQUIPÈDIA
ENGLISH
Possibly a hybrid between H. maculatum and H. attenuatum, the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for its possible biological properties.
Perforate St John's wort is a herbaceous perennial plant with extensive, creeping rhizomes. Its reddish stems are erect and branched in the upper section, and can grow up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high. The stems are woody near their base and may appear jointed from leaf scars.[3] The branches are typically clustered about a depressed base. It has opposite and stalkless leaves that are narrow and oblong in shape and 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) long.[4] Leaves borne on the branches subtend the shortened branchlets. The leaves are yellow-green in color, with scattered translucent dots of glandular tissue.[5] The dots are conspicuous when held up to the light, giving the leaves the "perforated" appearance to which the plant's Latin name refers. The flowers measure up to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) across, have five petals and sepals, and are colored bright yellow with conspicuous black dots.[6] The flowers appear in broad helicoid cymes at the ends of the upper branches, between late spring and early to mid summer. The cymes are leafy and bear many flowers. The pointed sepals have black glandular dots. The many stamens are united at the base into three bundles. The pollen grains are ellipsoidal. The black and lustrous seeds are rough, netted with coarse grooves.
When flower buds (not the flowers themselves) or seed pods are crushed, a reddish/purple liquid is produced.
WIKIPEDIA
Here we see the fractal pattern of Romanesco broccoli, a variant form of cauliflower. The fractal arrangement of the florets in this vegetable's head is amazing!!
As you move your cursor over the photo, you will see the three frames aka notes that I have added to show three sections of the broccoli that are similar to the next larger size (where it exists, of course.)
Romanesco broccoli exhibits "self similarity" characteristic of fractals in mathematics. It also exhibits "scale Invariance" ... Any smaller section of this head of broccoli has the same shapes and patterns as a larger section To me, that is so amazing!!
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-similar
In mathematics, a self-similar object is exactly or approximately similar to a part of itself (i.e. the whole has the same shape as one or more of the parts). Many objects in the real world, such as coastlines, are statistically self-similar: parts of them show the same statistical properties at many scales.[2] Self-similarity is a typical property of fractals.
Scale invariance is an exact form of self-similarity where at any magnification there is a smaller piece of the object that is similar to the whole. For instance, a side of the Koch snowflake is both symmetrical and scale-invariant; it can be continually magnified 3x without changing shape.
The non-trivial similarity evident in fractals is distinguished by their fine structure, or detail on arbitrarily small scales. As a counterexample, whereas any portion of a straight line may resemble the whole, further detail is not revealed.
_________________________________
Cauliflower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauliflower
For other uses, see Cauliflower (disambiguation).
Cauliflower
Cauliflower.JPG
Cauliflower, cultivar unknown
Details
SpeciesBrassica oleracea
Cultivar groupBotrytis cultivar group
OriginNortheast Mediterranean
Cultivar group
membersMany; see text.
Cauliflower, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy104 kJ (25 kcal)
Carbohydrates5 g
- Sugars1.9 g
- Dietary fiber2 g
Fat0.3 g
Protein1.9 g
Water92 g
Thiamine (vit. B1)0.05 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)0.06 mg (5%)
Niacin (vit. B3)0.507 mg (3%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)0.667 mg (13%)
Vitamin B60.184 mg (14%)
Folate (vit. B9)57 μg (14%)
Vitamin C48.2 mg (58%)
Vitamin E0.08 mg (1%)
Vitamin K15.5 μg (15%)
Calcium22 mg (2%)
Iron0.42 mg (3%)
Magnesium15 mg (4%)
Manganese0.155 mg (7%)
Phosphorus44 mg (6%)
Potassium299 mg (6%)
Sodium30 mg (2%)
Zinc0.27 mg (3%)
Link to USDA Database entry
Percentages are roughly approximated
using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea, in the family Brassicaceae. It is an annual plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head (the white curd) is eaten. The cauliflower head is composed of a white inflorescence meristem. Cauliflower heads resemble those in broccoli, which differs in having flower buds.
Its name is from Latin caulis (cabbage) and flower,.[1] Brassica oleracea also includes cabbage, brussels sprouts, kale, broccoli, and collard greens, though they are of different cultivar groups.
For such a highly modified plant, cauliflower has a long history. François Pierre La Varenne employed chouxfleurs in Le cuisinier françois.[2] They were introduced to France from Genoa in the 16th century, and are featured in Olivier de Serres' Théâtre de l'agriculture (1600), as cauli-fiori "as the Italians call it, which are still rather rare in France; they hold an honorable place in the garden because of their delicacy",[3] but they did not commonly appear on grand tables until the time of Louis XIV.[4]
Contents
1 Classification and identification
1.1 Major groups
1.2 Varieties
1.3 Colors
2 Nutrition
3 Cooking
4 Fractal dimension
5 History
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Classification and identification[edit]
Major groups
There are four major groups of cauliflower.[5]
Italian
Diverse in appearance, and biennial and annual in type, this group includes white, Romanesco, various green, purple, brown and yellow cultivars. This type is the ancestral form from which the others were derived.
Northwest European biennial
Used in Europe for winter and early spring harvest, this was developed in France in the 19th century, and includes the old cultivars Roscoff and Angers.
Northern European annuals
Used in Europe and North America for summer and fall harvest, it was developed in Germany in the 18th century, and includes the old cultivars Erfurt and Snowball.
Asian
A tropical cauliflower used in China and India, it was developed in India during the 19th century from the now-abandoned Cornish type,[6] and includes old varieties Early Patna and Early Benaras.
Varieties
There are hundreds of historic and current commercial varieties used around the world. A comprehensive list of about 80 North American varieties is maintained at North Carolina State University.[7]
Colors
White
White cauliflower is the most common color of cauliflower.
Orange
Orange cauliflower (B. oleracea L. var. botrytis) contains 25% more vitamin A than white varieties.[8] This trait came from a natural mutant found in a cauliflower field in Canada.[9] Cultivars include 'Cheddar' and 'Orange Bouquet'.
Green
Green cauliflower, of the B. oleracea botrytis group, is sometimes called broccoflower. It is available both with the normal curd shape and a variant spiky curd called Romanesco broccoli. Both types have been commercially available in the U.S. and Europe since the early 1990s. Green-curded varieties include 'Alverda', 'Green Goddess' and 'Vorda'. Romanesco varieties include 'Minaret' and 'Veronica'.
Purple
The purple color in this cauliflower is caused by the presence of the antioxidant group anthocyanins, which can also be found in red cabbage and red wine.[10] Varieties include 'Graffiti' and 'Purple Cape'. In Great Britain and southern Italy, a broccoli with tiny flower buds is sold as a vegetable under the name "purple cauliflower". It is not the same as standard cauliflower with a purple curd.
White cauliflower
Orange cauliflower
Purple cauliflower
Nutrition
Cauliflower is low in fat, low in carbohydrates but high in dietary fiber, folate, water, and vitamin C, possessing a high nutritional density.[11]
Cauliflower contains several phytochemicals, common in the cabbage family, that may be beneficial to human health.
Sulforaphane, a compound released when cauliflower is chopped or chewed, may protect against cancer.
Other glucosinolates
Carotenoids[11]
Indole-3-carbinol, a chemical that enhances DNA repair,[12][13] and acts as an estrogen antagonist,[14] slowing the growth of cancer cells.
Boiling reduces the levels of these compounds, with losses of 20–30% after five minutes, 40–50% after ten minutes, and 75% after thirty minutes.[15] However, other preparation methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir frying, have no significant effect on the compounds.[15]
A high intake of cauliflower has been associated with reduced risk of aggressive prostate cancer.[16]
Cooking
Aloo gobi, an Indian dish prepared with cauliflower and potato
Cauliflower can be roasted, boiled, fried, steamed, or eaten raw. Steaming or microwaving better preserves anticancer compounds than boiling.[15] When cooking, the outer leaves and thick stalks are removed, leaving only the florets. The leaves are also edible, but are most often discarded.[17] The florets should be broken into similar-sized pieces so they are cooked evenly. After eight minutes of steaming, or five minutes of boiling, the florets should be soft, but not mushy (depending on size). Stirring while cooking can break the florets into smaller, uneven pieces.
Low carbohydrate dieters can use cauliflower as a reasonable substitute for potatoes or rice; while they can produce a similar texture, or mouth feel, they lack the starch of the originals.
Fractal Dimension
Fractal pattern of Romanesco broccoli, a variant form of cauliflower
Cauliflower has been noticed by mathematicians for its distinct fractal dimension,[18][19] predicted to be about 2.8.[20]
History
The first reliable reference to cauliflower is found in the writings of the Arab Muslim scientists Ibn al-'Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, in the 12th and 13th centuries.[21]
[Capparis Tournefort ex Linnæus 1753: 144 (IT: 4) spp]
Conspecific sympatric concurrent specimens, lateral habitus.
Different flavonoids were identified in Capparis spinosa Linnæus 1753: rutin (quercetin 3-rutinoside), quercetin 7-rutinoside, quercetin 3-glucoside-7-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-rutinoside, astragalin and kæmpferol 3-rhamnorutinoside. C. spinosa contains more quercetin per weight than any other plant. Se is present in C. spinosa @ high concentrations in comparison with other vegetable products.
REFERENCES
A. Pignatti & al. 2019: Flora IT, v.2, p. 884; v.4, p. 639.
H. Zhang & Z.F. Ma 2018: Capparis spinosa phytochemistry.
A. Tamboli & al. 2017: Capparis molecular phylogeny.
S. Chedraoui & al. 2017: Capparis spinosa systematic review.
S. Fici 2014: Capparis spinosa species group revision.
Something new for the New Year,
I created this cookie/pastry for our New Years dinner last night at my brother in laws house,
We cut the Vasilopita and the winner was my nephew John,
I only found the coin once, its pleasure to see others find it
the happiness on their face when they find it is priceless to me:-)
The cookie/dessert is lace cookie (gingersnap) I made cannoli cream
and put a tiny amount on it, when I saw that it resembled a pearl in an Oyster
thus the name I gave the dessert:-)
Dipped in very rich semi sweet dark chocolate, chocolate has many benefits especially
on Women,
please read,
www.phytochemicals.info/plants/cacao/cardiovascular-disea...
Pistachio Nuts are rich source of many antioxidant phytochemical substances such as carotenes , vitamin-E, and polyphenolic antioxidant compounds.
I could not help but notice this pleasant scene of 3 blossoms....Gorse, Hawthorn and Rapeseed. To get the 3 together was awesome.
Ulex (gorse, furze or whin) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. The genus comprises about 20 plant species of thorny evergreen shrubs in the subfamily Faboideae of the pea family Fabaceae. The species are native to parts of western Europe and northwest Africa, with the majority of species in Iberia.
Gorse is closely related to the brooms, and like them, has green stems and very small leaves and is adapted to dry growing conditions. However it differs in its extreme thorniness, the shoots being modified into branched thorns 1–4 centimetres (0.39–1.6 in) long, which almost wholly replace the leaves as the plant's functioning photosynthetic organs. The leaves of young plants are trifoliate, but in mature plants they are reduced to scales or small spines.[1] All the species have yellow flowers, generally showy, some with a very long flowering season.
Species
The most widely familiar species is common gorse (Ulex europaeus), the only species native to much of western Europe, where it grows in sunny sites, usually on dry, sandy soils. It is also the largest species, reaching 2–3 metres (7–10 ft) in height; this compares with typically 20–40 centimetres (7.9–16 in) for Western Gorse (Ulex gallii). This latter species is characteristic of highly exposed Atlantic coastal heathland and montane habitats. In the eastern part of Great Britain, dwarf furze (Ulex minor) replaces western gorse. Ulex minor grows only about 30 centimetres (12 in) tall, a habit characteristic of sandy lowland heathland.
Common gorse flowers a little in late autumn and through the winter, coming into flower most strongly in spring. Western Gorse and Dwarf Furze flower in late summer (August-September in Ireland and Great Britain|Britain). Between the different species, some gorse is almost always in flower, hence the old country phrase: "When gorse is out of blossom, kissing's out of fashion". Gorse flowers have a distinctive coconut scent, experienced very strongly by some individuals, but weakly by others.[2
Ecology
Gorse may grow as a fire-climax plant, well adapted to encourage and withstand fires, being highly flammable,[4] and having seed pods that are to a large extent opened by fire, thus allowing rapid regeneration after fire. The burnt stumps also readily sprout new growth from the roots. Where fire is excluded, gorse soon tends to be shaded out by taller-growing trees, unless other factors like exposure also apply. Typical fire recurrence periods in gorse stands are 5–20 years.
Gorse thrives in poor growing areas and conditions including drought;[5] it is sometimes found on very rocky soils,[6] where many species cannot thrive. Moreover, it is widely used for land reclamation (e.g., mine tailings), where its nitrogen-fixing capacity helps other plants establish better.
Gorse is a valuable plant for wildlife, providing dense thorny cover ideal for protecting bird nests. In Britain, France and Ireland, it is particularly noted for supporting Dartford Warblers (Sylvia undata) and European Stonechats (Saxicola rubicola); the common name of the Whinchat (Saxicola rubetra) attests to its close association with gorse. The flowers are sometimes eaten by the caterpillars of the Double-striped Pug moth (Gymnoscelis rufifasciata), while those of the case-bearer moth Coleophora albicosta feed exclusively on gorse. The dry wood of dead gorse stems provides food for the caterpillars of the concealer moth Batia lambdella.
Invasive Species
In many areas of North America (notably California and Oregon), southern South America, Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii, the common gorse, introduced as an ornamental plant or hedge, has become an invasive species due to its aggressive seed dispersal; it has proved very difficult to eradicate and detrimental in native habitats. Common gorse is also an invasive species in the montane grasslands of Horton Plains National Park in Sri Lanka.[7]
Management
Gorse readily becomes dominant in suitable conditions, and where this is undesirable for agricultural or ecological reasons control is required, either to remove gorse completely, or to limit its extent. Gorse stands are often managed by regular burning or flailing, allowing them to regrow from stumps or seed. Denser areas of gorse may be bulldozed.
for cattle.
Uses
Foods
Gorse flowers are edible and can be used in salads, tea and to make a non-grape-based fruit wine.
As fodder, gorse is high in protein[citation needed] and may be used as feed for livestock, particularly in winter when other greenstuff is not available. Traditionally it was used as fodder for cattle, being made palatable either by "bruising" (crushing) with hand-held mallets, or grinding to a moss-like consistency with hand- or water-driven mills, or being finely chopped and mixed with straw chaff.[citation needed] Gorse is also eaten as forage by some livestock, such as feral ponies, which may eat little else in winter. Ponies may also eat the thinner stems of burnt gorse.
Fuel
Gorse bushes are highly flammable, and in many areas bundles of gorse were used to fire traditional bread ovens.[8]
Wood
Gorse wood has been used to make small objects; being non-toxic, it is especially suited for cutlery. In spite of its durability it is not used for construction because the plant is too small and the wood is unstable, being prone to warping. Gorse is useful for garden ornaments because it is resistant to weather and rot.
Gorse-based symbols
The furze is the badge of the Sinclair and MacLennan clans of Scotland. Compare this with the broom (Planta genista) as the emblem and basis of the name of the Plantagenet kings of England.
The flower, known as chorima in the Galician language, is considered the national flower of Galicia in NW Spain.
Gorse in popular culture
In Thomas Hardy's classic novel The Return of the Native, when Clym is partially blinded through excessive reading, he becomes a furze-cutter on Egdon Heath, to the dismay of his wife, Eustacia. In the book, the timeless, gorse-covered heath is described in each season of the novel's year-and-a-day timeline and becomes symbolic of the greater nature of mankind.
Its flammability rendered gorse symbolic as quickly flammable and quickly burning out; for example, Doyle, in his book "Sir Nigel" has Sir John Chandos say: "...They flare up like a furzebush in the flames, but if for a short space you may abide the heat of it, then there is a chance that it may be cooler... If the Welsh be like the furze fire, then, pardieu! the Scotch are the peat, for they will smolder and you will never come to the end of them."[9]
Winnie-the-Pooh fell into a gorse bush while trying to get honey in the first chapter of the book of the same name.[10]
In The second book of Tolkien's "Lord of the rings" trilogy, "The Two Towers", Frodo and Sam led by Gollum walked underneath very old and tall thickets of gorse on their way to pass by Minas Morgul. [11]
In "[[Red Doc>]]", Anne Carson's 2013 sequel to her 1998 novel-in-verse entitled "Autobiography of Red", the protagonist, G, owns a herd of musk oxen who like to feed on gorse; one ox in particular, Io, eats gorse flowers and hallucinates that she can fly.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_hawthorn
Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of hawthorn native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced in many other parts of the world where it is an invasive weed. Other common names include may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw. This species is one of several that have been referred to as Crataegus oxyacantha, a name that has been rejected by the botanical community as too ambiguous.
Description
The Common Hawthorn is a shrub or small tree 5–14 m tall, with a dense crown. The bark is dull brown with vertical orange cracks. The younger stems bear sharp thorns, 1 to 1.5 cm long. The leaves are 2–4 cm long, obovate and deeply lobed, sometimes almost to the midrib, with the lobes spreading at a wide angle. The upper surface is dark green above and paler underneath.
The hermaphrodite flowers are produced in late spring (May to early June in its native area) in corymbs of 5-25 together; each flower is about 1 cm diameter, and has five white petals, numerous red stamens, and a single style; they are moderately fragrant. They are pollinated by midges, bees and other insects and later in the year bear numerous haws. The haw is a small, oval dark red fruit about 1 cm long, berry-like, but structurally a pome containing a single seed. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse the seeds in their droppings.
It is distinguished from the related but less widespread Midland Hawthorn (C. laevigata) by its more upright growth, the leaves being deeply lobed, with spreading lobes, and in the flowers having just one style, not two or three. However they are inter-fertile and hybrids occur frequently; they are only entirely distinct in their more typical forms.
Uses
Medicinal use
Crataegus monogyna is one of the most common species used as the "hawthorn" of traditional herbalism, which is of considerable interest for treating cardiac insufficiency by evidence-based medicine. The plant parts used medicinally are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit. Several species of Crataegus have both traditional and modern medicinal uses. It is a good source of antioxidant phytochemicals,especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers.
In gardening and agriculture
Common Hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively stock and human proof with some basic maintenance. The traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practised with this species. It is a good fire wood which burns with a good heat and little smoke.[3]
Numerous hybrids exist, some of which are used as garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is C. × media (C. monogyna × C. laevigata), of which several cultivars are known, including the very popular 'Paul's Scarlet' with dark pink double flowers. Other garden shrubs that have sometimes been suggested as possible hybrids involving the Common Hawthorn[citation needed], include the Various-leaved Hawthorn of the Caucasus, which is only very occasionally found in parks and gardens.
Edible "berries", petals, and leaves
The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw but are commonly made into jellies, jams, and syrups, used to make wine, or to add flavour to brandy. Botanically they are pomes, but they look similar to berries. A haw is small and oblong, similar in size and shape to a small olive or grape, and red when ripe. Haws develop in groups of 2-3 along smaller branches. They are pulpy and delicate in taste. In this species (C. monogyna) they have only one seed, but in other species of hawthorn there may be up to 5 seeds.
Petals are also edible,[4] as are the leaves, which if picked in spring when still young are tender enough to be used in salads.
Notable trees
An ancient specimen, and reputedly the oldest tree of any species in France, is to be found alongside the church at Saint Mars sur la Futaie, Mayenne [1]. The tree has a height of 9 m, and a girth of 2.65 m (2009). The inscription on the plaque beneath reads: "This hawthorn is probably the oldest tree in France. Its origin goes back to St Julien (3rd century)", but such claims are impossible to verify.
A famous specimen in England was the Glastonbury or Holy Thorn which, according to legend, sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea after he thrust it into the ground whilst visiting Glastonbury in the 1st century AD. The tree was noteworthy because it flowered twice in a year, once in the late spring which is normal, but also once after the harshness of midwinter has passed. The original tree at Glastonbury Abbey, felled in 1640s during the English Civil War,[2] has been propagated as the cultivar 'Biflora'.[6] A replacement was planted by the local council in 1951, but was cut down by vandals in 2010. [3]
The oldest known living specimen in East Anglia, and possibly in the United Kingdom, is known as "The Hethel Old Thorn",[7] and is located in the churchyard in the small village of Hethel, south of Norwich, in Norfolk. It is reputed to be more than 700 years old, having been planted in the 13th century.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseed
Rapeseed (Brassica napus), also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rappi, rapaseed (and, in the case of one particular group of cultivars, canola), is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family). The name derives from the Latin for turnip, rāpa or rāpum, and is first recorded in English at the end of the 14th century. Older writers usually distinguished the turnip and rape by the adjectives round and long (-rooted), respectively.[2] See also Brassica napobrassica, which may be considered a variety of Brassica napus. Some botanists include the closely related Brassica campestris within B. napus. (See Triangle of U).
Brassica napus is cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, the third largest source of vegetable oil in the world.[
Cultivation and uses
Rapeseed oil was produced in the 19th century as a source of a lubricant for steam engines. It was less useful as food for animals or humans because it has a bitter taste due to high levels of glucosinolates. Varieties have now, however, been bred to reduce the content of glucosinolates, yielding a more palatable oil. This has had the side effect that the oil contains much less erucic acid.[citation needed]
Rapeseed is grown for the production of animal feed, vegetable oil for human consumption, and biodiesel; leading producers include the European Union, Canada, the United States, Australia, China and India. In India, it is grown on 13% of cropped land.[citation needed] According to the United States Department of Agriculture, rapeseed was the third leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and oil palm, and also the world's second leading source of protein meal, although only one-fifth of the production of the leading soybean meal.[citation needed]
World production is growing rapidly, with FAO reporting 36 million tons of rapeseed were produced in the 2003-2004 season, and estimating 58.4 million tons in the 2010-2011 season.[4] In Europe, rapeseed is primarily cultivated for animal feed,[citation needed] owing to its very high lipid and medium protein content.[citation needed]
Natural rapeseed oil contains 50% erucic acid. Wild type seeds also contain high levels of glucosinolates (mustard oil glucosindes), chemical compounds that significantly lowered the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed. In North America, the term "canola", originally a syncopated form of the abbreviation "Can.O., L-A." (Canadian Oilseed, Low-Acid) that was used by the Manitoba government to label the seed during its experimental stages, is widely used to refer to rapeseed, and is now a tradename for "double low" (low erucic acid and low glucosinolate) rapeseed.[5]
The rapeseed is the valuable, harvested component of the crop. The crop is also grown as a winter-cover crop. It provides good coverage of the soil in winter, and limits nitrogen run-off. The plant is ploughed back in the soil or used as bedding. On some organic operations, livestock such as sheep or cattle are allowed to graze on the plants.
Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soya.[citation needed] The feed is mostly employed for cattle feeding, but also for pigs and chickens (though less valuable for these). The meal has a very low content of the glucosinolates responsible for metabolism disruption in cattle and pigs.[6] Neither canola nor soy is recommended as feed for organic animal products, as both are predominantly GMO (some estimates are now at 90%), which is prohibited by organic standards.[citation needed]
Rapeseed "oil cake" is also used as a fertilizer in China, and may be used for ornamentals, such as bonsai, as well.[citation needed]
Rapeseed leaves and stems are also edible, similar to those of the related bok choy or kale. Some varieties of rapeseed (called 油菜, yóu cài, lit. "oil vegetable" in Chinese; yau choy in Cantonese; cải dầu in Vietnamese; phak kat kan khao [ผักกาดก้านขาว] in Thai; and nanohana [菜の花]/nabana [菜花] in Japanese) are sold as greens, primarily in Asian groceries, including those in California, where it is known as yao choy or tender greens. They are eaten as sag (spinach) in Indian and Nepalese cuisine, usually stir-fried with salt, garlic and spices.
Rapeseed produces great quantities of nectar, and honeybees produce a light-colored, but peppery honey from it. It must be extracted immediately after processing is finished, as it will quickly granulate in the honeycomb and will be impossible to extract. The honey is usually blended with milder honeys, if used for table use or sold as bakery grade. Rapeseed growers contract with beekeepers for the pollination of the crop.
"Total loss" chain and bar oil for chainsaws have been developed which are typically 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil. These lubricants are claimed to be less harmful to the environment and less hazardous to users than traditional mineral oil products,[7] although they are currently typically two to five times more expensive, leading some to use inexpensive cooking oil instead. Some countries, such as Austria, have banned the use of petroleum-based chainsaw oil.[8] These "biolubricants" are generally reported to be functionally comparable to traditional mineral oil products, with some reports claiming one or other is superior,[8] but with no overall consensus yet evident.
Rapeseed has also been researched as means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster.[9][10][11] It was discovered by researchers at the Belarusian Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry that rapeseed has a rate of uptake up to three times more efficient than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides goes into the parts of the plant that could potentially enter the food chain. As oil repels radionuclides, it could be produced canola oil free from contaminants being concentrated in other parts of the plant – the straw, the roots, the seed pods, etc., which then can be ploughed back into the soil and create a recycling process.[9]
Biodiesel
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,[12] partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower Gel point (petroleum) than most other vegetable oils. An estimated 66% of total rapeseed oil supply in the European Union is expected to be used for biodiesel production in the 2010-2011 year.[12]
Rapeseed is currently grown with a high level of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates N2O, a potent greenhouse gas with 296 times the global warming potential of CO2. An estimated 3-5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O.[13]
Cultivars
Canola was originally a trademark, but is now a generic term in North America for edible varieties of rapeseed oil. In Canada, an official definition of canola is codified in Canadian law.
Rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a greenish colour due to the presence of chlorophyll. It also contained a high concentration[specify] of erucic acid.
A variety of rapeseed developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. This and other recent varieties have been produced by using genetic engineering. In 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were GM (genetically modified), herbicide-tolerant canola varieties.[14]
Health effects
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to cardiac muscle, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.[15] Unmodified rapeseed oil can contain up to 45% erucic acid.[16] Food-grade canola oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, also known as rapeseed 00 oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil, has been generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.[17] Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the USA[17] and 5% in the EU,[18] with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human neonates.[17][18]
In 1981, a deadly outbreak of disease in Spain, known as toxic oil syndrome,[19] was caused by the consumption of rapeseed oil for industrial use that was fraudulently sold as cooking oil.
Rapeseed pollen contains known allergens.[20][21] Whether rape pollen causes hay fever has not been well established, because rape is an insect-pollinated (entomophilous) crop, whereas hay fever is usually caused by wind-pollinated plants. The inhalation of oilseed rape dust may cause asthma in agricultural workers.[22]
Production
Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed 00 since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and USA to 6 million metric tons in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production is thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.[23] Every ton of rapeseed yields about 400 kg of oil.
Top rapeseed producers
(million metric ton)
Country19651975198519952000200520072009
China
1.11.55.69.811.313.010.513.5
Canada
0.51.83.56.47.29.49.611.8
India
1.52.33.15.85.87.67.47.2
Germany
0.30.61.23.13.65.05.36.3
France
0.30.51.42.83.54.54.75.6
Poland
0.50.71.11.41.01.42.12.5
United Kingdom
<0.0070.060.91.21.21.92.12.0
Australia
<0.007<0.060.10.61.81.41.11.9
Ukraine
<0.007<0.06<0.03<0.10.10.31.01.9
Czech Republic
0.070.10.30.70.80.71.01.1
United States
<0.007<0.06<0.030.20.90.70.70.7
Russia
N/AN/AN/A0.10.10.30.60.7
Denmark
0.050.10.50.30.30.30.60.6
Belarus
N/AN/AN/A0.030.070.10.20.6
Hungary
0.0080.10.10.10.20.30.50.6
Romania
0.010.020.040.040.10.10.40.6
European Union
-------19.3
World Total5.28.819.234.239.546.450.561.6
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[24]
Pests and diseases
Animal pests
•Bertha armyworms (Mamestra configurata)
•Bronzed field beetle (Adelium brevicorne) larvae
•Cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii)
•Diamondback moths (Plutella xylostella)
•Flea beetles (Phyllotreta sp.)
•Grasshoppers (order Orthoptera)
•Harlequin bug (Murgantia histrionica)
•Lygus bugs (Lygus spp.)
•Pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus)
•Root maggots (Delia spp.)
•Snails and slugs
Diseases
•Beet western yellows virus (Luteoviridae family)
•Blackleg (caused by the fungus species Leptosphaeria maculans)
•Clubroot (caused by the protist Plasmodiophora brassicae)
•Sclerotinia white stem rot (caused by the fungus genus Sclerotinia)
•White rust disease (caused by the fungus species Albugo candida)
Genome sequencing and genetics
Bayer Cropscience (in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China, Keygene N.V., the Netherlands and the University of Queensland, Australia) announced it had sequenced the entire genome of Brassica napus and its constituent genomes present in Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B. napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project.[25][dated info]
GMO (genetically modified organism) controversy[edit]
The Monsanto Company has genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide, Roundup. They have sought compensation from farmers found to have the Roundup Ready gene in canola in their fields without paying a license fee. These farmers have claimed the Roundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claim that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, Roundup Ready volunteers are left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.
In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of Roundup Ready in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimation for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops. However, Schmeiser was not required to pay damages, as he did not benefit financially from the GMO crop in his field.[citation needed]
In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser has an agreement for Monsanto to clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm at a cost of $660.
SN/NC: Melochia pyramidata L., Syn. Melochia Corchorifolia, Melochia Tomentosa, Melochia Domingensis, Moluchia pyramidata, Malvaceae Family
Melochia corchorifolia, the chocolateweed, is a weedy tropical plant that is typically seen in the wastelands. It has been most frequently observed to grow in open areas, such as highways. Although Melochia corchorifolia does not have any common usage, it has been utilized as a homeopathic remedy. Its weedy and invasive characteristic inhibits its wider cultivation. Melochia corchorifolia is common in the Southeastern regions of the United States. It has been observed to grow from North Carolina to all the way south into Mississippi. In addition, it is prevalent in tropical areas of Africa, Asia and Australia. Sunny or dimly shaded humid regions of riversides, lakesides are its familiar natural habitats. This plant also grows typically as weed in cotton, soybean and rice plants. Melochia corchorifolia was used as a source of fibre for making dillybags and other objects in the north-central Arnhem Land region. It was noted as a source of very strong fibre. is not utilized for decoration or food purposes. However, it contains several phytochemical features. The leaves of Melochia corchorifolia are consumed as a potherb in West Africa and southern Africa. The cooked leaves present a popular, slimy side-dish in Malawi. Such utilization of the leaves are also quite common in Indo-China and India. Additionally, the stems are used for tying bundles and are used in the construction of roofs of houses.
The dried leaves of Melochia corchorifolia L have been shown to have high crude amount of protein, as well as small amounts of lipids. It also contains critical dietary minerals such as potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Melochia corchorifolia, a erva-de-chocolate, é uma planta tropical com ervas daninhas que normalmente é vista nos terrenos baldios. Tem sido observada com maior frequência em áreas abertas, como rodovias. Embora a Melochia corchorifolia não tenha nenhum uso comum, tem sido utilizada como remédio homeopático. Sua característica infestante e invasora inibe seu cultivo mais amplo. É comum nas regiões do sudeste dos Estados Unidos. Foi observado que cresce da Carolina do Norte até o sul do Mississippi. Além disso, é prevalente em áreas tropicais da África, Ásia e Austrália. É usado como fibra para fazer sacos e amarrar telhados. Também é uma rotina alimentar em alguns países africanos e asiáticos.
Melochia corchorifolia, de chocoladewiet, is een tropische wietplant die veel voorkomt in woestenij. Het is vaker waargenomen in open gebieden zoals snelwegen. Hoewel Melochia corchorifolia niet algemeen wordt gebruikt, is het gebruikt als een homeopathisch middel. Zijn onkruid- en invasieve karakter remt zijn bredere teelt. Het is gebruikelijk in de zuidoostelijke regio's van de Verenigde Staten. Er is waargenomen dat het groeit van Noord-Carolina tot ver naar het zuiden als Mississippi. Bovendien komt het veel voor in tropische gebieden van Afrika, Azië en Australië. Het wordt gebruikt als vezel om zakken te maken en daken vast te binden. Het is ook een voedingspatroon in sommige Afrikaanse en Aziatische landen.
La Melochia corchorifolia, l'erba del cioccolato, è una pianta infestante tropicale che si vede comunemente nelle lande desolate. È stato osservato più frequentemente in aree aperte come le autostrade. Sebbene la Melochia corchorifolia non abbia un uso comune, è stata usata come rimedio omeopatico. La sua caratteristica infestante e invasiva ne inibisce la coltivazione più ampia. È comune nelle regioni sudorientali degli Stati Uniti. È stato osservato che cresce dalla Carolina del Nord fino al Mississippi. Inoltre, è diffuso nelle aree tropicali dell'Africa, dell'Asia e dell'Australia. Viene usata come fibra per fare sacchi e per legare i tetti. È anche una routine dietetica in alcuni paesi africani e asiatici.
Melochia corchorifolia, das Schokoladenkraut, ist eine tropische Unkrautpflanze, die häufig im Ödland anzutreffen ist. Es wurde häufiger in offenen Bereichen wie Autobahnen beobachtet. Obwohl Melochia corchorifolia keine allgemeine Verwendung hat, wurde es als homöopathisches Heilmittel verwendet. Seine unkrautartigen und invasiven Eigenschaften hemmen seinen breiteren Anbau. Es ist in den südöstlichen Regionen der Vereinigten Staaten verbreitet. Es wurde beobachtet, dass es von North Carolina bis nach Mississippi wächst. Darüber hinaus ist es in tropischen Gebieten Afrikas, Asiens und Australiens weit verbreitet. Es wird als Faser zur Herstellung von Säcken und zum Binden von Dächern verwendet. Es ist auch eine Ernährungsroutine in einigen afrikanischen und asiatischen Ländern.
Melochia corchorifolia, la hierba del chocolate, es una planta de hierba tropical que se ve comúnmente en los páramos. Se ha observado con mayor frecuencia en áreas abiertas como carreteras. Aunque Melochia corchorifolia no tiene un uso común, se ha utilizado como remedio homeopático. Su característica maleza e invasiva inhibe su cultivo más amplio. Es común en las regiones del sureste de los Estados Unidos. Se ha observado que crece desde Carolina del Norte hasta el sur de Mississippi. Además, es frecuente en áreas tropicales de África, Asia y Australia. Se utiliza como fibra para hacer costales y amarrar techos. También es una rutina dietética en algunos países africanos y asiáticos.
Melochia corchorifolia, l'herbe à chocolat, est une plante adventice tropicale que l'on voit couramment dans les friches. Il a été observé plus fréquemment dans des zones ouvertes telles que les autoroutes. Bien que Melochia corchorifolia n'ait pas d'usage courant, il a été utilisé comme remède homéopathique. Sa caractéristique adventice et envahissante inhibe sa culture plus large. Il est courant dans les régions du sud-est des États-Unis. On a observé qu'il poussait de la Caroline du Nord jusqu'au Mississippi au sud. De plus, il est répandu dans les régions tropicales d'Afrique, d'Asie et d'Australie. Il est utilisé comme fibre pour fabriquer des sacs et pour attacher les toits. C'est aussi une routine alimentaire dans certains pays d'Afrique et d'Asie.
Melochia corchorifolia、チョコレートの雑草は、荒地でよく見られる熱帯の雑草植物です。高速道路などの開けた場所でより頻繁に観察されています。 Melochia corchorifolia には一般的な用途はありませんが、ホメオパシーのレメディとして使用されてきました。その雑草と侵略的な特性は、より広い栽培を阻害します。これは、米国の南東部地域で一般的です。ノースカロライナ州から南はミシシッピ州まで成長することが観察されています。さらに、アフリカ、アジア、オーストラリアの熱帯地域で流行しています。袋を作ったり、屋根を結ぶための繊維として使用されます。また、アフリカやアジアの一部の国では日常的な食生活でもあります。
Melochia corchorifolia ، عشب الشوكولاتة ، هو نبات عشب استوائي يشاهد عادة في الأراضي القاحلة. وقد لوحظ بشكل متكرر في المناطق المفتوحة مثل الطرق السريعة. على الرغم من أن Melochia corchorifolia ليس له استخدام شائع ، فقد تم استخدامه كعلاج المثلية. حشائشها وخصائصها الغازية تمنع زراعتها على نطاق أوسع. إنه شائع في المناطق الجنوبية الشرقية من الولايات المتحدة. وقد لوحظ أنه ينمو من ولاية كارولينا الشمالية حتى الجنوب مثل ميسيسيبي. علاوة على ذلك ، فهو منتشر في المناطق الاستوائية في إفريقيا وآسيا وأستراليا. يتم استخدامه كألياف لصنع الأكياس وربط الأسقف. إنه أيضًا روتين غذائي في بعض البلدان الأفريقية والآسيوية.
The proverb "An apple a day keeps the doctor away.", addressing the health effects of the fruit, dates from the 19th century Wales. Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Compared to many other fruits and vegetables, apples contain relatively low amounts of vitamin C, but are a rich source of other antioxidant compounds. The fiber content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with heart disease, weight loss and controlling cholesterol as they do not have any cholesterol, have fiber, which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption, and (like most fruits and vegetables) are bulky for their caloric content.
There is evidence that in vitro apples possess phenolic compounds which may be cancer-protective and demonstrate antioxidant activity. The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2.
As it is still October... sadly cancer-awareness month, I thought I'd upload something 'different'?
I have 2 friends and the husband of a friend, on different Continents going through gruelling Chemotherapy...
I try to give them as much POSITIVITY and support as I can.
Another flickr user which we've met, just lost his mum, 6 months after his sister, he is in my thoughts!
I lost my sister and my best friend who was like a brother to me…
I don't think there is anybody that hasn't been 'touched' by the awful disease; it is the lottery of horror.
I found this out today, that cauliflower is low in fat, high in dietary fibre, folate, water and vitamin C, possessing a very high nutritional density. As a member of the brassica family, cauliflower shares with broccoli and cabbage several phytochemicals which are beneficial to human health, including sulforaphane, an anti-cancer compound released when cauliflower is chopped or chewed. Boiling reduces the levels of anti-cancer compounds, with losses of 20–30% after five minutes, 40–50% after ten minutes, and 75% after thirty minutes. However, other preparation methods such as steaming, micro waving, and stir frying had no significant effect on the compounds.
Along with other brassica vegetables, cauliflower is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells and appears to block the growth of cancer cells. The compound also appears to work as an anti-oestrogen, appearing to slow or prevent the growth of tumours of the breast and prostate.] Cauliflower also contains other glucosinolates besides sulfurophane, substances which may improve the liver's ability to detoxify carcinogenic substances. A high intake of cauliflower has been found to reduce the risk of aggressive prostate cancer.
A cancer patient said something profound today: most people when they receive the dreaded news, they think it is the end… but NO, it is the beginning… of your battle, so fight it!
THANX for ALL your comments and visits, so appreciated, too many to be returned (sadly, however I DO try!... )
Have a wonderful day, filled with love and beauty, M, (*_*)
Please do not COPY or use any of my images on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved
Why not view the set as a slide-show?
Also I often upload more than one image at the same time; I see a tendency to only view the last uploaded...
My latest blog HERE:
magdaindigo.blogspot.com/2010/09/ala-rembrandt-magda-port...
SN/NC: Ribes rubrum, Fam. Grossulariaceae, Red currant, grosellero, groselheiro
The redcurrant or red currant is a member of the genus Ribes in the gooseberry family. It is native to western Europe. The species is widely cultivated and has escaped into the wild in many regions. There are several other similar species native in Europe, Asia and North America, also with edible fruit. These include Ribes spicatum (northern Europe and northern Asia), Ribes alpinum (northern Europe), R. schlechtendalii (northeast Europe), R. multiflorum (southeast Europe), R. petraeum (southwest Europe) and R. triste (North America; Newfoundland to Alaska and southward in mountains). While Ribes rubrum is native to Europe, large berried cultivars of the redcurrant were first produced in Belgium and northern France in the 17th century. In modern times, numerous cultivars have been selected; some of these have escaped gardens and can be found in the wild across Europe and extending into Asia. Redcurrant fruits are known for their tart flavor, a characteristic provided by a relatively high content of organic acids and mixed polyphenols. As many as 65 different phenolic compounds may contribute to the astringent properties of redcurrants, with these contents increasing during the last month of ripening. Twenty-five individual polyphenols and other nitrogen-containing phytochemicals in redcurrant juice have been isolated specifically with the astringent flavor profile sensed in the human tongue.
A groselha ou groselha vermelha é um membro do gênero Ribes na família da groselha. É nativo da Europa Ocidental. A espécie é amplamente cultivada e escapou para a natureza em muitas regiões. Existem várias outras espécies semelhantes nativas da Europa, Ásia e América do Norte, também com frutos comestíveis. Estes incluem Ribes spicatum (norte da Europa e norte da Ásia), Ribes alpinum (norte da Europa), R. schlechtendalii (nordeste da Europa), R. multiflorum (sudeste da Europa), R. petraeum (sudoeste da Europa) e R. triste (América do Norte; Terra Nova ao Alasca e ao sul nas montanhas). Enquanto Ribes rubrum é nativo da Europa, grandes cultivares de groselha foram produzidas pela primeira vez na Bélgica e no norte da França no século XVII. Nos tempos modernos, várias cultivares foram selecionadas; alguns deles escaparam dos jardins e podem ser encontrados na natureza em toda a Europa e se estendendo até a Ásia. As frutas de groselha são conhecidas por seu sabor azedo, característica proporcionada por um teor relativamente alto de ácidos orgânicos e polifenóis mistos.
La grosella roja o grosella roja es un miembro del género Ribes en la familia de las grosellas. Es originaria de Europa occidental. La especie se cultiva ampliamente y se ha escapado a la naturaleza en muchas regiones. Hay varias otras especies similares nativas de Europa, Asia y América del Norte, también con frutos comestibles. Estos incluyen Ribes spicatum (norte de Europa y norte de Asia), Ribes alpinum (norte de Europa), R. schlechtendalii (noreste de Europa), R. multiflorum (sureste de Europa), R. petraeum (suroeste de Europa) y R. triste (Norteamérica); Terranova a Alaska y hacia el sur en las montañas). Si bien la Ribes rubrum es originaria de Europa, en el siglo XVII se produjeron por primera vez en Bélgica y el norte de Francia cultivos de grosella roja con bayas grandes. En los tiempos modernos, se han seleccionado numerosos cultivares; algunos de estos han escapado de los jardines y se pueden encontrar en la naturaleza en toda Europa y extendiéndose hasta Asia. Las frutas de grosella roja son conocidas por su sabor agrio, una característica proporcionada por un contenido relativamente alto de ácidos orgánicos y polifenoles mixtos.
Il ribes rosso o ribes rosso è un membro del genere Ribes nella famiglia dell'uva spina. È originario dell'Europa occidentale. La specie è ampiamente coltivata ed è fuggita in natura in molte regioni. Esistono diverse altre specie simili originarie dell'Europa, dell'Asia e del Nord America, anche con frutti commestibili. Questi includono Ribes spicatum (Europa settentrionale e Asia settentrionale), Ribes alpinum (Europa settentrionale), R. schlechtendalii (Europa nord-orientale), R. multiflorum (Europa sud-orientale), R. petraeum (Europa sud-occidentale) e R. triste (America settentrionale; Terranova in Alaska e verso sud in montagna). Sebbene il Ribes rubrum sia originario dell'Europa, le grandi cultivar di ribes rosso a bacca furono prodotte per la prima volta in Belgio e nel nord della Francia nel XVII secolo. In tempi moderni sono state selezionate numerose cultivar; alcuni di questi sono sfuggiti ai giardini e possono essere trovati allo stato brado in tutta Europa e si estendono in Asia. I frutti di ribes rosso sono noti per il loro sapore aspro, una caratteristica data da un contenuto relativamente alto di acidi organici e polifenoli misti.
Die Johannisbeere oder Johannisbeere ist ein Mitglied der Gattung Ribes in der Familie der Stachelbeeren. Sie ist in Westeuropa beheimatet. Die Art wird weithin kultiviert und ist in vielen Regionen in die Wildnis entkommen. Es gibt mehrere andere ähnliche Arten, die in Europa, Asien und Nordamerika beheimatet sind und ebenfalls essbare Früchte tragen. Dazu gehören Ribes spicatum (Nordeuropa und Nordasien), Ribes alpinum (Nordeuropa), R. schlechtendalii (Nordosteuropa), R. multiflorum (Südosteuropa), R. petraeum (Südwesteuropa) und R. triste (Nordamerika). ; Neufundland bis Alaska und südlich in die Berge). Obwohl Ribes rubrum in Europa beheimatet ist, wurden große Beerensorten der roten Johannisbeere erstmals im 17. Jahrhundert in Belgien und Nordfrankreich produziert. In der Neuzeit wurden zahlreiche Sorten ausgewählt; Einige von ihnen sind aus Gärten entkommen und können in ganz Europa und bis nach Asien in freier Wildbahn gefunden werden. Rote Johannisbeeren sind für ihren scharfen Geschmack bekannt, der durch einen relativ hohen Gehalt an organischen Säuren und gemischten Polyphenolen gekennzeichnet ist.
La groseille ou groseille rouge fait partie du genre Ribes dans la famille des groseilles. Il est originaire d'Europe occidentale. L'espèce est largement cultivée et s'est échappée dans la nature dans de nombreuses régions. Il existe plusieurs autres espèces similaires originaires d'Europe, d'Asie et d'Amérique du Nord, également avec des fruits comestibles. Ceux-ci comprennent Ribes spicatum (Europe du Nord et Asie du Nord), Ribes alpinum (Europe du Nord), R. schlechtendalii (Europe du Nord-Est), R. multiflorum (Europe du Sud-Est), R. petraeum (Europe du Sud-Ouest) et R. triste (Amérique du Nord) ; de Terre-Neuve à l'Alaska et vers le sud dans les montagnes). Alors que Ribes rubrum est originaire d'Europe, les cultivars à grandes baies de la groseille ont été produits pour la première fois en Belgique et dans le nord de la France au 17ème siècle. Dans les temps modernes, de nombreux cultivars ont été sélectionnés ; certains d'entre eux se sont échappés des jardins et peuvent être trouvés à l'état sauvage à travers l'Europe et s'étendant jusqu'en Asie. Les fruits de la groseille sont connus pour leur saveur acidulée, caractéristique apportée par une teneur relativement élevée en acides organiques et en polyphénols mixtes.
De aalbes of aalbes is een lid van het geslacht Ribes in de kruisbesfamilie. Het is inheems in West-Europa. De soort wordt op grote schaal gekweekt en is in veel regio's in het wild ontsnapt. Er zijn verschillende andere vergelijkbare soorten die inheems zijn in Europa, Azië en Noord-Amerika, ook met eetbaar fruit. Deze omvatten Ribes spicatum (Noord-Europa en Noord-Azië), Ribes alpinum (Noord-Europa), R. schlechtendalii (Noordoost-Europa), R. multiflorum (Zuidoost-Europa), R. petraeum (Zuidwest-Europa) en R. triste (Noord-Amerika; Newfoundland naar Alaska en zuidwaarts in de bergen). Hoewel Ribes rubrum inheems is in Europa, werden in de 17e eeuw voor het eerst grote bessenrassen van de rode bes geproduceerd in België en Noord-Frankrijk. In de moderne tijd zijn er talloze cultivars geselecteerd; sommige van deze zijn ontsnapt uit tuinen en zijn in het wild te vinden in heel Europa en strekken zich uit tot in Azië. Rode bessen staan bekend om hun scherpe smaak, een kenmerk van een relatief hoog gehalte aan organische zuren en gemengde polyfenolen.
الكشمش الأحمر أو الكشمش الأحمر هو عضو في جنس ريبس في عائلة عنب الثعلب. موطنها أوروبا الغربية. يُزرع هذا النوع على نطاق واسع وقد هرب إلى البرية في العديد من المناطق. هناك العديد من الأنواع الأخرى المماثلة في أوروبا وآسيا وأمريكا الشمالية ، بالإضافة إلى الفاكهة الصالحة للأكل. وتشمل هذه Ribes spicatum (شمال أوروبا وشمال آسيا) و Ribes alpinum (شمال أوروبا) و R. schlechtendalii (شمال شرق أوروبا) و R. multiflorum (جنوب شرق أوروبا) و R. petraeum (جنوب غرب أوروبا) و R. triste (أمريكا الشمالية ؛ نيوفاوندلاند إلى ألاسكا وجنوبًا في الجبال). في حين أن Ribes rubrum هي موطنها الأصلي في أوروبا ، فقد تم إنتاج أصناف التوت الكبيرة من الكشمش الأحمر لأول مرة في بلجيكا وشمال فرنسا في القرن السابع عشر. في العصر الحديث ، تم اختيار العديد من الأصناف ؛ وقد هرب بعضها من الحدائق ويمكن العثور عليها في البرية عبر أوروبا وتمتد إلى آسيا. تشتهر ثمار الكشمش الأحمر بطعمها اللاذع ، وهي خاصية توفرها نسبة عالية نسبيًا من الأحماض العضوية والبوليفينول المختلط.
赤スグリまたは赤スグリは、グーズベリー科のリブス属のメンバーです。西ヨーロッパ原産です。この種は広く栽培されており、多くの地域で野生に逃げてきました。ヨーロッパ、アジア、北アメリカに自生する他のいくつかの同様の種があり、これも食用の果物です。これらには、Ribes spicatum（北ヨーロッパおよび北アジア）、Ribes alpinum（北ヨーロッパ）、R。schlechtendalii（北東ヨーロッパ）、R。multiflorum（南東ヨーロッパ）、R。petraeum（南西ヨーロッパ）、およびR. triste（北アメリカ;ニューファウンドランドからアラスカ、そして南の山々）。 Ribes rubrumはヨーロッパ原産ですが、フサスグリの大型のベリー栽培品種は、17世紀にベルギーとフランス北部で最初に生産されました。現代では、多くの品種が選択されています。これらのいくつかは庭から逃げ出し、ヨーロッパ中の野生で見つけられ、アジアに広がっています。フサスグリの果実は、有機酸と混合ポリフェノールの比較的高い含有量によって提供される特徴であるタルトフレーバーで知られています。
#abfav_white
I found this out today, that cauliflower is low in fat, high in dietary fibre, folate, water and vitamin C, possessing a very high nutritional density.
As a member of the brassica family, cauliflower shares with broccoli and cabbage several phytochemicals which are beneficial to our health, including sulforaphane, an anti-cancer compound released when cauliflower is chopped or chewed.
Boiling reduces the levels of anti-cancer compounds, with losses of 20–30% after five minutes, 40–50% after ten minutes, and 75% after thirty minutes. However, other preparation methods such as steaming, micro waving, and stir frying had no significant effect on the compounds.
Along with other brassica vegetables, cauliflower is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells and appears to block the growth of cancer cells.
The compound also appears to work as an anti-oestrogen, appearing to slow or prevent the growth of tumours of the breast and prostate.
Cauliflower also contains other glucosinolates besides sulfurophane, substances which may improve the liver's ability to detoxify carcinogenic substances.
A high intake of cauliflower has been found to reduce the risk of aggressive prostate cancer.
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Have a wonderful day, filled with love and beauty, M, (*_*)
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Leopard Lacewing was first sighted and recorded on end 2005 in Singapore , it ranges from India, throughout Southeast Asia, and south to Papua New Guinea.
This dazzling butterfly exhibits strong sexual dimorphism. Females feature wing patterns with a gray or white background, whereas the upper surfaces of the males are a bright orange. Both sexes are sprinkled with blackish-blue spots and lining veins.
The caterpillars of the lacewing butterfly feed on the leaves of flowering vines in the genus Passiflora and sequester defensive phytochemicals from the plant.
Consequently, the larvae and adult butterflies display a distinct warning coloration that advertises their unpalatable nature to potential predators. When handled, they often exude a noxious odor generated from the ingested passion vine organic compounds.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clematis
Clematis is a genus of about 380 species within the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. Their garden hybrids and cultivars have been popular among gardeners, beginning with Clematis 'Jackmanii', a garden staple since 1862; more cultivars are being produced constantly. They are mainly of Chinese and Japanese origin.
Species names
Most species are known as clematis in English, while some are also known as:
traveller's joy, a name invented for the sole British native, C. vitalba, by the herbalist John Gerard;
virgin's bower for C. terniflora, C. virginiana, and C. viticella;
old man's beard, applied to several with prominent seedheads;
leather flower for those with fleshy petals; or vase vine for the North American Clematis viorna.
Etymology
The genus name Clematis is from Ancient Greek κληματίς : clēmatís, ("a climbing plant") from κλήμα : klḗma – 'twig, sprout, tendril'.
Botany
The genus is composed of mostly vigorous, woody, climbing vines / lianas. The woody stems are quite fragile until several years old. Leaves are opposite and divided into leaflets and leafstalks that twist and curl around supporting structures to anchor the plant as it climbs. Some species are shrubby, while others, like C. recta, are herbaceous perennial plants. The cool temperate species are deciduous, but many of the warmer climate species are evergreen. They grow best in cool, moist, well-drained soil in full sun.
Clematis species are mainly found throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, rarely in the tropics. Clematis leaves are food for the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera species, including the willow beauty (Peribatodes rhomboidaria).
The timing and location of flowers varies; spring-blooming clematis flower on side shoots of the previous year's stems, summer/fall blooming clematis bloom only on the ends of new stems, and twice-flowering clematis do both.
Taxonomy
The genus Clematis was first published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753, the first species listed being Clematis viticella. The genus name long pre-dates Linnaeus. It was used in Classical Greek for various climbing plants, and is based on κλήμα (klēma), meaning vine or tendril.
Archiclematis and Naravelia
Some morphologically distinctive taxa lacking the combination of characters defining Clematis were formerly segregated as the genera Archiclematis (1 species) and Naravelia (several species). DNA sequence studies have found that these two genera are deeply nested in Clematis, the morphological characters they were erected on being either reversals or misinterpretations, and that consequently the genera should be reduced to the synonymy of Clematis. Naravelia is a monophyletic group within Clematis.
Species to be transferred include:
Clematis alternata syn. Archiclematis alternata
Clematis antonii, syn. Naravelia antonii
Clematis dasyoneura, syn. Naravelia dasyoneura
Clematis horripilata, syn. Naravelia laurifolia
Clematis zeylanica, syn. Naravelia zeylanica
A partial list of species:
Clematis addisonii Britt. – Addison's leather flower
Clematis akebioides (Maxim.) H.J.Veitch
Clematis albicoma Wherry – whitehair leather flower
Clematis alpina (L.) Mill. – alpine clematis
Clematis aristata R.Br. ex Ker Gawl. – Australian clematis
Clematis armandii – Armand clematis
Clematis baldwinii Torr. & A.Gray – pine hyacinth
Clematis bigelovii Torr. – Bigelow clematis
Clematis brachiata Thunb. – traveller's joy
Clematis campaniflora Brot. – Portuguese clematis
Clematis catesbyana – satin curls
Clematis chinensis Osbeck – wei ling xian in Chinese (Chinese: 威靈仙; pinyin: Wei ling xian)
Clematis chrysocoma Franch. – gold wool clematis
Clematis cirrhosa L. – includes the 'Freckles', 'Wisley Cream', and 'Jingle Bells' cultivars
Clematis cirrhosa v. balearica (Balearic Islands)
Clematis coactilis (Fern.) Keener – Virginia whitehair leather flower
Clematis columbiana (Nutt.) Torr. & A.Gray – British Columbia virgin's bower
Clematis crispa L. – swamp leather flower
Clematis cunninghamii
Clematis dioica L. – cabellos de angel
Clematis drummondii Torr. & A.Gray – Drummond clematis
Clematis durandii
Clematis fawcettii F.Muell.
Clematis flammula L. – fragrant virgin's bower
Clematis florida Thunb. – Asian clematis
Clematis foetida Raoul (1846) – New Zealand clematis
Clematis fremontii S.Watson – Fremont's leather flower
Clematis glaucophylla Small – whiteleaf leather flower
Clematis glycinoides DC. – headache vine
Clematis gouriana – Indian traveller's joy
Clematis henryi Oliv.
Clematis hirsutissima Pursh – hairy clematis
Clematis hedysarifolia DC.
Clematis integrifolia L.
Clematis ispahanica Bioss
Clematis × jackmanii T.Moore – Jackman's clematis
Clematis koreana Kom. – Korean clematis
Clematis lanuginosa Lindl. & Paxton
Clematis lasiantha Nutt. – pipestem clematis
Clematis leptophylla (F.Muell. ex Benth.) H.Eichler
Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. – western white clematis, hierba de chivo
Clematis linearifolia Steud.
Clematis macropetala Ledeb. – downy clematis
Clematis mandshurica
Clematis marmoraria Sneddon – New Zealand dwarf clematis
Clematis microphylla DC. – small-leaved clematis
Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. – anemone clematis
Clematis morefieldii Kral – Huntsville vasevine
Clematis napaulensis DC.
Clematis occidentalis (Hornem.) DC. – western blue virginsbower
Clematis ochroleuca Ait. – curlyheads
Clematis orientalis L. – Chinese clematis
Clematis palmeri Rose – Palmer clematis
Clematis paniculata J.F.Gmel. – puawhananga
Clematis patens C.Morren & Decne.
Clematis pauciflora Nutt. – ropevine clematis
Clematis pickeringii A.Gray
Clematis pitcheri Torr. & A.Gray – bluebill
Clematis pubescens Hügel ex Endl. – common clematis
Clematis recta L. – ground clematis
Clematis reticulata Walter – netleaf leather flower
Clematis rhodocarpa Rose
Clematis smilacifolia Wall.
Clematis socialis Kral – Alabama leather flower
Clematis stans Siebold & Zucc. – kusabotan
Clematis tangutica (Maxim.) Korsh. – golden clematis
Clematis terniflora DC. – sweet autumn clematis
Clematis texensis Buckley – scarlet leather flower
Clematis urophylla
Clematis versicolor – manycolored leather flower
Clematis verticillaris – purple virgins bower
Clematis viorna L. – vasevine, traveller's joy
Clematis virginiana L. – devil's darning needles, Virginia bower
Clematis viridiflora [sv] Bertol.
Clematis vitalba L. – traveller's joy, old man's beard
Clematis viticaulis E.Steele – Millboro leather flower
Clematis viticella L. – Italian leather flower, purple clematis
Formerly placed here
Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. (as C. trifoliata Thunb.)
Subdivisions
One recent classification[which?] recognised 297 species of clematis. Consequently, taxonomists and gardeners subdivide the genus. Several classification systems exist.
Magnus Johnson divided Clematis into 19 sections, several with subsections. Christopher Grey-Wilson divided the genus into 9 subgenera (Clematis, Cheiropsis, Flammula, Archiclematis, Campanella, Atragene, Tubulosae, Pseudanemone, Viorna), several with sections and subsections within them. Several of the subdivisions are fairly consistent between these two systems; for example, all of Grey-Wilson's subgenera are used as sections by Johnson. Alternatively, John Howell defined twelve groups: the Evergreen, Alpina, Macropetala, Montana, Rockery, Early Large-Flowered, Late Large-Flowered, Herbaceous, Viticella, Texensis, Orientalis, and Late Mixed groups.
Many of the most popular garden forms are cultivars belonging to the Viticella section of the subgenus Flammula as defined by Grey-Wilson. These larger-flowered cultivars are often used within garden designs to climb archways, pergolas, or wall-mounted trellises, or to grow through companion plants. These forms normally have large 12–15 cm diameter upward-facing flowers and are believed to involve crosses of C. patens, C. lanuginosa, and C. viticella. Early-season, large-flowering forms such as 'Nelly Moser' tend towards the natural flowering habit of C. patens or C. lanuginosa while later-flowering forms such as ×jackmanii are nearer in habit to C. viticella.
Garden history
Clematis patens C.Morren et Decne. (Kazaguruma), native to Japan, was introduced to Europe in 1836 by Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold. Today, it is the most frequently used species for developing large-flowered cultivars.
The wild Clematis species, such as Clematis florida, native to China had also made their way into Japanese gardens by the 17th century. These species were also brought to Europe through Japan.
Japanese garden selections, mostly cultivated in Edo Period using species that are native to Japan or China, were the first exotic clematises to reach European gardens, in the 18th century, long before the Chinese species were identified in their native habitat at the end of the 19th century.
After it arrived in Europe, it acquired several meanings during the Victorian era, famous for its nuanced flower symbolism. It came to symbolize both mental beauty and art as well as poverty.
Cultivation
The climbing varieties are valued for their ability to scramble up walls, fences, and other structures, and also to grow through other plants, such as shrubs and trees. Some can be trained along the ground to provide cover. Because of their adaptability and masses of spectacular flowers, clematis are among the most popular of all garden plants. Many choice and rare cultivars are to be had from mail order and online catalogues. Specialists regularly put on displays in national flower shows such as the Chelsea Flower Show. In theory, it is possible to have a clematis in flower at any time throughout the year. Many varieties provide a second period of interest with a flush of flowers, or decorative seed heads.
They will grow in any good garden soil. The roots usually require a moist, cool substrate, while the herbage can take full sun. Some more delicate cultivars such as 'Nelly Moser' do better in light shade. Many clematis can be grown successfully in containers.
Pruning
Different varieties and cultivars require varied pruning regimes from no pruning to heavy pruning annually. The pruning regime for a cultivated clematis falls into three categories:
Vigorous species and early-flowering hybrids do not require pruning, other than to occasionally remove tangled growth (as in C. armandii, C. montana, and C. tangutica)
Large-flowered hybrids blooming in early summer on the previous season's growth can be pruned lightly in the dormant season for structure
Late-flowering hybrids which bloom on the current season's growth can be pruned back to a pair of buds in the dormant season
Cultivars
Over 80 varieties and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.
In the Atragene group are woody deciduous climbers with bell-shaped flowers in spring, produced on the last year's growth. These include 'Markham's Pink', a pale pink breed.
In the early large-flowered group, which flower on the last year's growth, are:
'Arctic Queen' or 'Polar bear' (double white)
'Clematis Josephine' or 'Clematis Evijohill' (pinkish-mauve)
'Marie Boisselot' (white)
'Miss Bateman' (white with red stamens)
'Nelly Moser' (white with pink stripes)
'Niobe' (maroon)
'The President' (blue)
In the Clematis integrifolia group (or Integrifolia group) are non- or semi-climbing plants that flower on the current year's growth. These include the violet-pink 'Arabella'.
In the late large-flowered group, which flower on the current year's growth, are:
'Jackmanii' (purple)
'Polish spirit' (purple)
'Prince Charles' (violet)
In the Clematis montana group (or Montana group) are vigorous climbers that flower in spring, such as:
'Mayleen (pale pink)
Clematis montana var. grandiflora (white)
Clematis montana var. rubens 'Tetrarose' (rose pink with green stamens)
In the Clematis viticella group (or Viticella group) are compact deciduous climbers with small flowers produced on the current year's growth, such as:
'Alba Luxurians' (white)
'Betty Corning' (pale lilac pink)
'Madame Julia Correvon' (crimson)
'Purpurea Plena Elegans' (purple double)
Other breeds include:
'Princess Diana' of the Clematis texensis or Texensis group (deep pink)
×triternata rubromarginata (white & purple)
For further details see the List of Award of Garden Merit clematis.
Horticultural classification
This follows the classification adopted by V. Matthews in The International Clematis Register and Checklist 2002, except that C. ispahanica, now considered to have been included in error, has been omitted from the list of parent species in Tangutica Group.
Small-flowered Division: Flowers (1.5–)2–12(–18) cm across
Armandii Group: Cultivars belonging to, or derived from, species classified in subsection Meyenianae (Tamura) M. Johnson, mainly C. armandii.
Atragene Group: Cultivars belonging to, or derived from, species classified in subgenus Atragene (L.) Torrey & A. Gray, such as C. alpina, C. chiisanensis, C. fauriei, C. koreana, C. macropetala, C. ochotensis, C. sibirica, C. turkestanica. The former Alpina Group and Macropetala Group are included here. Historically, the Alpina Group was used for single-flowered cultivars, and double-flowered cultivars were assigned to the Macropetala Group.
Cirrhosa Group: Cultivars belonging to, or derived mainly from, C. cirrhosa.
Flammula Group: Cultivars with at least one parent belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Flammula DC. (excluding subsection Meyenianae (Tamura)M. Johnson), such as C. angustifolia, C. flammula, C. recta, C. terniflora.
Forsteri Group: Cultivars belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Novae-zeelandiae M. Johnson (native to Australia and New Zealand) such as C. australis, C. foetida, C. forsteri, C. marata, C. marmoraria, C. paniculata, C. petriei.
Heracleifolia Group:Cultivars with at least one parent belonging to, or derived from, species classified in subgenus Tubulosa (Decne.) Grey-Wilson, such as C. heracleifolia, C. stans, C. tubulosa.
Integrifolia Group:Cultivars belonging to, or derived mainly from, C. integrifolia. Includes the Diversifolia Group (which covered C. × diversifolia (C. integrifolia × C. viticella) and its cultivars).
Montana Group: Cultivars belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Montanae (Schneider) Grey-Wilson such as C. chrysocoma, C. montana, C. spooneri.
Tangutica Group: Cultivars with at least one parent belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Meclatis (Spach) Baill., such as C. intricata, C. ladakhiana, C. orientalis, C. serratifolia, C. tangutica, C. tibetana. This Group has also been known as the Orientalis Group.
Texensis Group: Cultivars derived from C. texensis crossed with representatives from either of the Large-flowered Groups.
Viorna Group: Cultivars with at least one parent belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Viorna A. Gray, such as C. crispa, C. fusca, C. ianthina, C. pitcheri, C. reticulata, C. texensis, C. viorna. Cultivars assigned to Texensis Group, and cultivars with C. integrifolia in their parentage, are excluded.
Vitalba Group: Cultivars with at least one parent belonging to, or derived from, species classified in section Clematis L., such as C. ligusticifolia, C. potaninii, C. vitalba, C. virginiana.
Viticella Group: Cultivars with at least one parent mainly derived from C. viticella. Excludes hybrids between C. integrifolia and C. viticella: see Integrifolia Group.
Large-flowered Division: Flowers (5–)10–22(–29) cm across, usually flat.
Early Large-flowered Group: Comprises the former Patens Group and Fortunei Group. Cultivars of the Patens Group were derived mainly from C. patens, either directly or indirectly. They were characterized by producing flowers in spring on the previous year's wood, and often again in summer or early autumn on the current year's growth. The former Fortunei Group (also known as Florida Group, although it had nothing to do with C. florida) comprised cultivars with double or semi-double flowers that were produced on the previous year's growth in spring. Hybridization has made it impossible to keep the original Groups separate: there are a number of cultivars that produce both single and double flowers, or that only produce semi-double or double flowers under certain conditions.
Late Large-flowered Group: Comprises the former Lanuginosa Group and Jackmanii Group. Cultivars of the Lanuginosa Group were derived mainly from C. lanuginosa, either directly or indirectly. The Jackmanii Group covered cultivars produced from a cross between C. viticella (or a derivative therefrom) and a member of the Patens Group. Both Groups produce their flowers on the current year's growth in summer and autumn. It is often impossible to say whether a cultivar belongs to the Lanuginosa Group or to the Jackmanii Group, due to hybridization and/or lack of information on the parentage, so it is not possible to maintain these Groups.
Use and toxicity
The European species did not enter into the herbalists' pharmacopeia. In the American Old West, the Western white clematis, Clematis ligusticifolia, was called pepper vine by early travelers and pioneers, who took a tip from Spanish colonials and used seeds and the acrid leaves of yerba de chivato as a pepper substitute. The entire genus contains essential oils and compounds which are extremely irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. Unlike black pepper or Capsicum, however, the compounds in clematis cause internal bleeding of the digestive tract if ingested in large amounts. C. ligusticifolia is essentially toxic. When pruning them, it is a good idea to wear gloves. Despite its toxicity, Native Americans used very small amounts of clematis as an effective treatment for migraine headaches and nervous disorders. It was also used as an effective treatment of skin infections. Clematis is also a constituent of Bach's Rescue Remedy. Leaf extracts from two Ethiopian species (Clematis longicauda steud ex A. Rich. and Clematis burgensis Engl.) are used locally to treat ear disorders and eczema. Phytochemical screening of the extracts from both of these species showed antibacterial and antifungal activity. The extracts of these plants also possess wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities which could also be attributed to the phytoconstituents.
Clematis has been listed as one of the 38 plants used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".
Pests and diseases
Clematis species are susceptible to several pests and diseases. Clematis wilt, a stem rot caused by the fungus Phoma clematidina, causes dramatic wilting and death of whole branches, although many species are resistant to it. The species of this genus are also alternate hosts of Puccinia recondita f.sp. tritici.: 3 C. mandshurica specifically is known to provide inoculum transferrable to wheat in the former eastern Soviet territories, and several of this genus are hosts for several other P. recondita strains: 8 and other Puccinia.: 25 Other pests and diseases include powdery mildew, viruses, slugs and snails, scale insects, aphids, earwigs, and green flower disease, which is usually caused by infection with a phytoplasma, a type of bacterium.
This variety of figs is usually found in the canned goods section of your supermarket. They are delicious.
Other varieties of figs are usually semi-dried and packed in plastic in the dried fruit section.
______________________________
Varieties of Fig Grown In California:
As of 2012, there are about 16,000 acres of figs grown in California of about 10 varieties.
Those varieties in relative order of acreage are:
Calimyrna,
Mission,
Adriatic types (Conadria, Adriatic, Di Redo, Tena),
Brown Turkey,
Kadota,
Sierra,
Sequoia.
_____________________________
Culinary uses:
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and are used in jam-making.
Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well.
The widely produced fig newton or fig roll is a biscuit (cookie) with a filling made from figs.
______________________________
Common Fig
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_fig
Ficus carica – Common fig
58571 Ficus carica L.jpg
Foliage and fruit drawn in 1771[1]
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Rosids
Order:Rosales
Family:Moraceae
Tribe:Ficeae
Genus:Ficus
Subgenus:Ficus
Species:F. carica
Binomial name
Ficus carica
L.
Synonyms
Ficus carica is an Asian species of flowering plants in the mulberry family, known as the common fig (or just the fig). It is the source of the fruit also called the fig, and as such is an important crop in those areas where it is grown commercially. Native to the Middle East and western Asia, it has been sought out and cultivated since ancient times, and is now widely grown throughout the world, both for its fruit and as an ornamental plant.[3][4] The species has become naturalized in scattered locations in Asia and North America.[5][6]
Contents:
1 Etymology
2 Biology
2.1 Description
2.2 Habitat
2.3 Ecology
3 In human culture
3.1 History
3.1.1 Introduction to California
3.2 Cultivation
3.2.1 Breeding
3.3 Production
3.4 Culinary use
3.5 Nutrition and phytochemicals
3.6 In religion and mythology
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
1 Etymology
The term fig has its origins from the Latin word, ficus, as well as the older Hebrew name, feg.[7] The name of the caprifig (Ficus caprificus Risso) is derived from Latin, with capro referring to goat and ficus referring to fig.[8]
2 Biology
2.1 Description
Ficus carica is a gynodioecious (functionally dioecious),[9] deciduous tree or large shrub, growing to a height of 7–10 metres (23–33 ft), with smooth white bark. Its fragrant leaves are 12–25 centimetres (4.7–9.8 in) long and 10–18 centimetres (3.9–7.1 in) across, and deeply lobed with three or five lobes. The complex inflorescence consists of a hollow fleshy structure called the syconium, which is lined with numerous unisexual flowers. The flowers themselves are not visible from outside the syconium, as they bloom inside the infructescence. Although commonly referred to as a fruit, the fig is actually the infructescence or scion of the tree, known as a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds are borne. It is a hollow-ended stem containing many flowers. The small orifice (ostiole) visible on the middle of the fruit is a narrow passage, which allows the specialized fig wasp Blastophaga psenes to enter the fruit and pollinate the flower, whereafter the fruit grows seeds. See Ficus: Fig fruit and reproduction system.
The edible fruit consists of the mature syconium containing numerous one-seeded fruits (druplets).[9] The fruit is 3–5 centimetres (1.2–2.0 in) long, with a green skin, sometimes ripening towards purple or brown. Ficus carica has milky sap (laticifer). The sap of the fig's green parts is an irritant to human skin.[10]
2.2 Habitat
Variegated fig
The common fig tree has been cultivated since ancient times and grows wild in dry and sunny areas, with deep and fresh soil; also in rocky areas, from sea level to 1,700 meters. It prefers relatively light free-draining soils, and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Unlike other fig species, Ficus carica does not always require pollination by a wasp or from another tree,[11][12] but can be pollinated by the fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes to produce seeds.
The plant can tolerate seasonal drought, and the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climate is especially suitable for the plant. Situated in a favorable habitat, old specimens when mature can reach a considerable size and form a large dense shade tree. Its aggressive root system precludes its use in many urban areas of cities, but in nature helps the plant to take root in the most inhospitable areas. The common fig tree is mostly a phreatophyte that lives in areas with standing or running water. It grows well in the valleys of the rivers and ravines saving no water, having strong need of water that is extracted from the ground. The deep-rooted plant searches groundwater, in aquifers, ravines, or cracks in the rocks. The fig tree, with the water, cools the environment in hot places, creating a fresh and pleasant habitat for many animals that take shelter in its shade in the times of intense heat.
The mountain or rock fig ("Anjeer Kohi", انجیر کوهی, in Persian) is a wild variety, tolerant of cold dry climates, of the semi-arid rocky mountainous regions of Iran, especially in the Kohestan Mountains of Khorasan.[10]
2.3 Ecology
Ficus carica is dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter their seeds in droppings. Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. The common fig tree also sprouts from the root and stolon issues.
The infructescence is pollinated by a symbiosis with a kind of fig wasp (Blastophaga psenes). The fertilized female wasp enters the fig through the scion, which is a tiny hole in the crown (the ostiole). She crawls on the inflorescence inside the fig and pollinates some of the female flowers. She lays her eggs inside some of the flowers and dies. After weeks of development in their galls, the male wasps emerge before females through holes they produce by chewing the galls. The male wasps then fertilize the females by depositing semen in the hole in the gall. The males later return to the females and enlarge the holes to enable the females to emerge. Then some males enlarge holes in the scion, which enables females to disperse after collecting pollen from the developed male flowers. Females have a short time ( 20% DV) of dietary fiber and the essential mineral, manganese (26% DV), while several other dietary minerals are in moderate-to-low content.[29]
Figs contain diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin and rutin.[30][31] Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations of anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside having particularly high content.[32]
3 In Human Culture
3.1 History
The edible fig is one of the first plants that was cultivated by humans. Nine subfossil figs of a parthenocarpic (and therefore sterile) type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). The find predates the domestication of wheat, barley, and legumes, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that this sterile but desirable type was planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat and rye).[13]
Figs were widespread in ancient Greece, and their cultivation was described by both Aristotle and Theophrastus. Aristotle noted that as in animal sexes, figs have individuals of two kinds, one (the cultivated fig) that bears fruit, and one (the wild caprifig) that assists the other to bear fruit. Further, Aristotle recorded that the fruits of the wild fig contain psenes (fig wasps); these begin life as larvae, and the adult psen splits its "skin" (pupa) and flies out of the fig to find and enter a cultivated fig, saving it from dropping. Theophrastus observed that just as date palms have male and female flowers, and that farmers (from the East) help by scattering "dust" from the male on to the female, and as a male fish releases his milt over the female's eggs, so Greek farmers tie wild figs to cultivated trees. They do not say directly that figs reproduce sexually, however.[14]
Figs were also a common food source for the Romans. Cato the Elder, in his c. 160 BC De Agri Cultura, lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian (De agri cultura, ch. 8). The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor of foie gras.
It was cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of India. From the 15th century onwards, it was grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New World.[3] In the 16th century, Cardinal Reginald Pole introduced fig trees to Lambeth Palace in London.
In 1769, Spanish missionaries led by Junipero Serra brought the first figs to California. The Mission variety, which they cultivated, is still popular.[15] The fact that it is parthenocarpic (self-pollinating) made it an ideal cultivar for introduction.
The Kadota cultivar is even older, being mentioned by the Roman naturalist Pliny in the 1st century A.D.
3.1.1 Introduction to California
As California’s population grew, especially after the goldrush, a number of other varieties were brought to California by individuals and nurserymen from the East Coast of the United States and from France and England, and by the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that California had potential for being a great fig-producing state with its Mediterranean climate and a latitude of 38 degrees, lining San Francisco up with Smyrna, Turkey. G. P. Rixford first brought true Smyrna figs to California in 1880. The effort was amplified by the San Francisco Bulletin Company, which sought to bring new varieties from Smyrna to California and distribute the cuttings to the Bulletin’s subscribers, with the expectation that the subscribers would report back which varieties were most fit for California or regions of California. In 1881, some 14,000 cuttings were shipped in good condition to California and distributed to Bulletin Company subscribers as promised. However, not one of the trees planted produced a single mature fruit.[3] George Roeding concluded this was due to the lack of pollination since the insect pollinator was not present in California.[15] After a couple of failed attempts, wild fig trees carrying fig wasps were successfully introduced to California on April 6, 1899 to allow for fruit production of Smyrna-type figs.[3][14]
The most popular variety of Smyrna-type fig is Calimyrna, a name combining “California” and “Smyrna.” The variety itself, however, is not one produced through a breeding program, but it is from one of the cuttings brought to California in the latter part of the 19th century. It is identical to the Lob Injir variety that has been grown in Turkey for many centuries.[16]
3.2 Cultivation
The common fig is grown for its edible fruit throughout the temperate world. It is also grown as an ornamental tree, and the cultivar 'Brown Turkey' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[17]
Figs can be found in continental climates with hot summers as far north as Hungary and Moravia, and can be harvested up to four times per year. Thousands of cultivars, most named, have been developed as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. Figs plants can be propagated by seed or by vegetative methods. Vegetative propagation is quicker and more reliable, as it does not yield the inedible caprifigs. Seeds germinate readily in moist conditions and grow rapidly once established. For vegetative propagation, shoots with buds can be planted in well-watered soil in the spring or summer, or a branch can be scratched to expose the bast (inner bark) and pinned to the ground to allow roots to develop.[18]
Two crops of figs can be produced each year.[19] The first or breba crop develops in the spring on last year's shoot growth. The main fig crop develops on the current year's shoot growth and ripens in the late summer or fall. The main crop is generally superior in quantity and quality, but some cultivars such as 'Black Mission', 'Croisic', and 'Ventura' produce good breba crops.
There are three types of edible figs
1. Persistent (or common) figs have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting; the fruit can develop through parthenocarpic means. This is a popular horticulture fig for home gardeners. Dottato (Kadota), Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.
2. Caducous (or Smyrna) figs require cross pollination by the fig wasp with pollen from caprifigs for the fruit to mature. If not pollinated the immature fruits drop. Some cultivars are Marabout, Inchàrio, and Zidi.
3. Intermediate (or San Pedro) figs set an unpollinated breba crop, but need pollination for the later main crop. Examples are Lampeira, King, and San Pedro.
There are dozens of fig cultivars, including main and Breba cropping varieties, and an edible caprifig (the Croisic). Varieties are often local, found in a single region of one country.[21][22]
3.2.1 Breeding/
While the fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop, a formal breeding program was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century.[23] Ira Condit, “High Priest of the Fig,” and William Storey tested some thousands of fig seedlings in the early 20th Century based at University of California, Riverside.[22] It was then continued at the University of California, Davis. However, the fig breeding program was temporarily closed in the 1980s.[23]
Due to insect and fungal disease pressure in both dried and fresh figs, the breeding program was revived in 1989 by James Doyle and Louise Ferguson using the germplasm established at UC Riverside by Ira Condit and William Storey.
Crosses were made and two new varieties are now in production in California: the public variety "Sierra", and the patented variety "Sequoia".
3.3 Production
Turkey is the leading producer of figs (274.5 thousand metric tons), having 27% of the world total of over one million metric tons (table). Significant production occurs also in the North African region, particularly Egypt, Algeria and Morocco (table).
Top Fig Producing Countries - 2012
RankCountryProduction (in Metric Tonnes)
1 Turkey274,535
2 Egypt171,062
3 Algeria110,058
4 Morocco102,694
5 Iran78,000
6 Syria41,224
7 United States35,072
8 Brazil28,010
9 Albania27,255
10 Tunisia25,000
World1,031,391
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization [25]
While the United States is lower on the list of fig producing countries, California produces ~ 80% of the U.S. production,[26] some of the greatest research on fig breeding and development in the last 100 years has taken place in California under the auspices of the private growers and public employees of the University of California.
As of 2012, there are about 16,000 acres of figs grown in California of about 10 varieties. Those varieties in relative order of acreage are:
Calimyrna,
Mission,
Adriatic types (Conadria, Adriatic, Di Redo, Tena),
Brown Turkey,
Kadota,
Sierra,
Sequoia.[27]
3.4 Culinary use
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used in jam-making.
Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well.
The widely produced fig newton or fig roll is a biscuit (cookie) with a filling made from figs.
Fresh figs are in season[where?] from August through to early October. Fresh figs used in cooking should be plump and soft, and without bruising or splits. If they smell sour, the figs have become over-ripe.
Slightly under-ripe figs can be kept at room temperature for 1–2 days to ripen before serving.
Figs are most flavorful at room temperature.[28]
3.5 Nutrition and phytochemicals
"Schiocca": calabrian dried figs
Raw figs are a good source (14% of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber per 100 gram serving (74 calories), but otherwise do not supply essential nutrients in significant content (table).
In a 100 gram serving providing 229 calories, dried figs are a rich source (> 20% DV) of dietary fiber and the essential mineral, manganese (26% DV), while several other dietary minerals are in moderate-to-low content.[29]
Figs contain diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin and rutin.[30][31] Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations of anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside having particularly high content.[32]
Figs, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy310 kJ (74 kcal)
Carbohydrates
19.18 g
Sugars16.26 g
Dietary fiber2.9 g
Fat
0.30 g
Protein
0.75 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)(5%) 0.060 mg
Riboflavin (B2)(4%) 0.050 mg
Niacin (B3)(3%) 0.400 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)(6%) 0.300 mg
Vitamin B6(9%) 0.113 mg
Folate (B9)(2%) 6 μg
Choline(1%) 4.7 mg
Vitamin C(2%) 2.0 mg
Vitamin K(4%) 4.7 μg
Minerals
Calcium(4%) 35 mg
Iron(3%) 0.37 mg
Magnesium(5%) 17 mg
Manganese(6%) 0.128 mg
Phosphorus(2%) 14 mg
Potassium(5%) 242 mg
Sodium(0%) 1 mg
Zinc(2%) 0.15 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Nutrition and phytochemicals[edit]
"Schiocca": calabrian dried figs
Raw figs are a good source (14% of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber per 100 gram serving (74 calories), but otherwise do not supply essential nutrients in significant content (table).
In a 100 gram serving providing 229 calories, dried figs are a rich source (> 20% DV) of dietary fiber and the essential mineral, manganese (26% DV), while several other dietary minerals are in moderate-to-low content.[29]
Figs contain diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin and rutin.[30][31] Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations of anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside having particularly high content.[32]
3.6 In religion and mythology
Fresh figs cut open showing the flesh and seeds inside
In the Biblical Book of Genesis, Adam and Eve clad themselves with fig leaves (Genesis 3:7) after eating the "forbidden fruit" from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Likewise, fig leaves, or depictions of fig leaves, have long been used to cover the genitals of nude figures in painting and sculpture. Art collectors and exhibitors often added these depictions long after the original work was completed.[citation needed]
The use of the fig leaf as a protector of modesty or shield of some kind has entered the language.[citation needed]
The Book of Deuteronomy specifies the fig as one of the Seven Species (Deuteronomy 8:7-8), describing the fertility of the land of Canaan. This is a set of seven plants indigenous to the Middle East that together can provide food all year round. The list is organized by date of harvest, with the fig being fourth due to its main crop ripening during summer.
Also in the Bible (Matthew 21:18–22 and Mark 11:12–14, 19–21) is a story of Jesus finding a fig tree when he was hungry; the tree had leaves on it, but no fruit. Jesus then curses the fig tree, which withers.
The biblical quote "each man under his own vine and fig tree" (1 Kings 4:25) has been used to denote peace and prosperity. It was commonly quoted to refer to the life that would be led by settlers in the American West,[citation needed] and was used by Theodor Herzl in his depiction of the future Jewish Homeland: "We are a commonwealth. In form it is new, but in purpose very ancient. Our aim is mentioned in the First Book of Kings: 'Judah and Israel shall dwell securely, each man under his own vine and fig tree, from Dan to Beersheba".[33] United States President George Washington, writing in 1790 to the Touro Synagogue of Newport, Rhode Island, extended the metaphor to denote the equality of all Americans regardless of faith.[34]
Buddha achieved enlightenment under the bodhi tree, a large and old sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa, or Pipal).
Sura 95 of the Qur'an is named al-Tīn (Arabic for "The Fig"), as it opens with the oath "By the fig and the olive." The fruit is also mentioned elsewhere in the Qur'an. Within the Hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari records Muhammad stating: "If I had to mention a fruit that descended from paradise, I would say this is it because the paradisiacal fruits do not have pits...eat from these fruits for they prevent hemorrhoids, prevent piles and help gout."[35]
In Greek mythology, the god Apollo sends a crow to collect water from a stream for him. The crow sees a fig tree and waits for the figs to ripen, tempted by the fruit. He knows that he is late and that his tardiness will be punished, so he gets a snake from the stream and collects the water. He presents Apollo with the water and uses the snake as an excuse. Apollo sees through the crow's lie and throws the crow, goblet, and snake into the sky where they form the constellations Hydra, Crater, and Corvus.
In Aristophanes' Lysistrata one of the women boasts about the "curriculum" of initiation rites she went through to become an adult woman (Lys. 641–7). As her final accomplishment before marriage, when she was already a fair girl, she bore the basket as a kanephoros, wearing a necklace of dried figs.
In the course of his campaign to persuade the Roman Republic to pursue a third Punic War, Cato the Elder produced before the Senate a handful of fresh figs, said to be from Carthage. This showed its proximity to Rome (and hence the threat), and also accused the Senate of weakness and effeminacy: figs were associated with femininity, owing to the appearance of the inside of the fruit.[36]
The word "sycophant" comes from the Greek word sykophantes, meaning"one who shows the fig". "Showing the fig" was a vulgar gesture made with the hand.[37]
Since the flower is invisible, there are various idioms related to it in languages around the world. In a Bengali idiom as used in tumi yēna ḍumurēr phul hay.ē gēlē (তুমি যেন ডুমুরের ফুল হয়ে গেলে), i.e., 'you have become (invisible like) the fig flower (doomurer phool)'. There is a Hindi idiom related to flower of fig tree, गूलर का फूल (gūlar kā phūl i.e. flower of fig) means something that just would not ever see i.e. rare of the rarest[38] In Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh state of India apart from standard Hindi idiom a variant is also used; in the region it is assumed that if something or work or job contains (or is contaminated by) flower of fig it will not get finished e.g. this work contains fig flower i.e. it is not getting completed by any means.
Gular ka phool (flower of fig) is a collection of poetry in written in Hindi by Rajiv Kumar Trigarti.[39]
A poem in Telugu written by Yogi Vemana, says "Medi pandu chuda melimayyi undunu, potta vippi chuda purugulundunu", "The fig fruit looks harmless but once you open you find tiny insects [refers to the fig wasp] in there".
Von Wielligh's Baobab
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of 19,485 km2 (7,523 sq mi) in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends 360 km (220 mi) from north to south and 65 km (40 mi) from east to west. The administrative headquarters are in Skukuza. Areas of the park were first protected by the government of the South African Republic in 1898, and it became South Africa's first national park in 1926.
To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is Mozambique. It is now part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a peace park that links Kruger National Park with the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and with the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique.
The park is part of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere an area designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve (the "Biosphere").
The park has nine main gates allowing entrance to the different camps.
(Wikipedia)
Adansonia digitata, the African baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent. The long-lived pachycauls are typically found in dry, hot savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape, and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. Their growth rate is determined by ground water or rainfall, and their maximum age, which is subject to much conjecture, seems to be in the order of 1,500 years. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are steeped in legend and superstition. European explorers of old were inclined to carve their names on baobabs, and many are defaced by modern graffiti.
The scientific name Adansonia refers to the French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727–1806), who observed a specimen in 1749 on the island of Sor, Senegal. On the nearby Îles des Madeleines Adanson found another baobab, 3.8 metres (12 ft) in diameter, which bore the carvings of passing mariners on its trunk, including those of Henry the Navigator in 1444 and André Thevet in 1555. When Théodore Monod searched the island in the 20th century, this tree was not to be found. Adanson concluded that the baobab, of all the trees he studied, "is probably the most useful tree in all." He consumed baobab juice twice a day while in Africa, and was convinced that it maintained his health. "Digitata" refers to the digits of the hand, as the baobab has compound leaves with normally five (but up to seven) leaflets are akin to a hand.
Common names for the baobab include monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots), and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar).
The trees usually grow as solitary individuals, and are large and distinctive elements of savannah or scrubland vegetation. Some large individuals live to well over a thousand years of age. All baobab trees are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remain leafless for eight months of the year.
They can grow to between 5–25 m (16–82 ft) in height. They are in fact known both for their height and trunk's girth. The trunk tends to be bottle-shaped and can reach a diameter of 10–14 m (33–46 ft). The span of the roots actually exceed the tree's height, a factor that enables it to survive in a dry climate. Many consider the tree to be “upside-down” due to the trunk likeness to a taproot and the branches akin to finer capillary roots. The trunk is smooth and shiny and can range from being reddish brown to grey. The bark can feel cork-like. The branches are thick and wide and very stout compared to the trunk.
During the early summer (October to December in southern hemisphere) the tree bears very large, heavy, white flowers. These are 12 cm (4.7 in) across and open during the late afternoon to stay open for one night. The pendulous, showy flowers have a very large number of stamens. They have a sweet scent but later emit a carrion smell, especially when they turn brown and fall after 24 hours. Researchers have shown that they appear to be primarily pollinated by fruit bats of the subfamily Pteropodinae. The flowers have 5 petals that are leathery and hairy on the inside. The sepals are cup-shaped and 5-cleft. The stamens are divided into multiple anthers and styles are 7-10 rayed.
The indehiscent fruit are large, egg-shaped capsules. They are filled with pulp that dries, hardens, and falls to pieces which look like chunks of powdery, dry bread. The seeds are hard, black and kidney-shaped.
They are native to mainland Africa. The tree has also been introduced to other regions such as Australia and Asia. The northern limit of its distribution in Africa is associated with rainfall patterns; only on the Atlantic coast and in the Sudanian Savanna does its occurrence venture naturally into the Sahel. On the Atlantic coast, this may be due to spreading after cultivation. Its occurrence is very limited in Central Africa, and it is found only in the very north of South Africa. In Eastern Africa, the trees grow also in shrublands and on the coast. In Angola and Namibia, the baobabs grow in woodlands, and in coastal regions, in addition to savannahs. and in Penang, Malaysia, along certain streets.
The baobab is native to most of Africa, especially in drier, less tropical climates. It is not found in areas where sand is deep. It is sensitive to water logging and frost. More specifically: Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, northern Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Congo Republic, DR Congo (formerly Zaire), Eritrea, Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, São Tomé, Príncipe, Annobon, Java (introduced), Nepal (introduced), Sri Lanka (introduced), Philippines (introduced), Jamaica (introduced), South Africa (Transvaal), Namibia, Botswana, Puerto Rico (introduced), Haiti (introduced), Dominican Republic (introduced), Venezuela (introduced), Seychelles (introduced), Madagascar (introduced), Comoros (introduced), India (introduced), southwest Yemen (introduced), Oman (Dhofar) (introduced), Guangdong (introduced), Fujian (introduced), Yunnan (introduced).
Adansonia trees produce faint growth rings, probably annually, but they are not reliable for aging specimens, because they are difficult to count and may fade away as the wood ages. Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individuals of A. digitata. The Panke baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees — Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa — were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. Another specimen known as Grootboom was dated after it died and found to be at least 1275 years old. Greenhouse gases, climate change, and global warming appear to be factors reducing baobab longevity.
The baobab is a traditional food plant in Africa, but is little-known elsewhere. The fruit has been suggested to have the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable land care.
The African baobab fruit is usually 15–20 cm (6–8 in) long, but can be as big as 25 centimetres (9.8 in). In Sudan — where the tree is called tebeldi — people make tabaldi juice by soaking and dissolving the dry pulp of the fruit in water, locally known as gunguleiz.
Baobab leaves can be eaten as a relish. Young fresh leaves are cooked in a sauce and sometimes are dried and powdered. The powder is called lalo in Mali and sold in many village markets in Western Africa. The leaves are used in the preparation of a soup termed miyan kuka in Northern Nigeria and are rich in phytochemicals and minerals. Oil extracted by pounding the seeds can be used for cooking but this is not widespread.
Baobab leaves are sometimes used as forage for ruminants in dry season. The oilmeal, which is a byproduct of oil extraction, can also be used as animal feed. In times of drought, elephants consume the juicy wood beneath the bark of the baobab.
In 2008, the European Union approved the use and consumption of baobab fruit. It is commonly used as an ingredient in smoothies and cereal bars. In 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) granted generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status to baobab dried fruit pulp as a food ingredient.
In Africa, the different populations of baobabs have revealed significant genetic differences. It has consequently been suggested that the taxon contains more than one species. The shape of their fruit especially, varies considerably from region to region.
Baobab seed withstand drying and remain viable over long periods, as it has a hard seed coat. It can potentially be dispersed over long distances, and its germination potential is improved when it has passed through the digestive tract of an animal. Animals like elephants, black rhinos and eland can potentially convey the seeds over long distances. Baboons likewise spread the seeds in their dung, but over shorter distances.
Pollination in the baobab is achieved primarily by fruit bats, but bush babies and several kinds of insect also assist. Some aspects of the baobab's reproductive biology are not yet understood. It is still speculated whether fertile baobab seeds can result from pollination by the tree's own pollen. It would appear as if pollen from another tree is required for fertile seed, as isolated trees do form seed, only to abort them at a late stage. The existence of some very isolated trees, may then be due to their self-incompatibility and inability to reproduce.
Arab traders introduced it to northwestern Madagascar. There they were often planted at the center of villages, and sometimes outlived them.
Along the Zambezi, the tribes believe that baobabs were upright and too proud. The gods became angry and uprooted them and threw them back into the ground upside-down. Evil spirits now cause bad luck to anyone that picks up the sweet white flowers. More specifically, a lion will kill them. In Kafue National Park, one of the largest baobabs is known as “Kondanamwali” or the “tree that eats maidens.” The tree fell in love with four beautiful maidens. When they reached puberty, they made the tree jealous by finding husbands. So, one night, during a thunderstorm, the tree opened its trunk and took the maidens inside. A rest house has been built in the branches of the tree. On stormy nights, the crying of the imprisoned maidens can still be heard. Some people believe that women living in kraals where baobabs are plenty will have more children. This is scientifically plausible as those women will have better access to the tree's vitamin-rich leaves and fruits to complement a vitamin-deficient diet.
The tree also plays a role in Antoine De Saint-Exupéry’s fictional children’s book, The Little Prince. In the story, baobabs are described as dangerous plants which must be weeded out from the good plants, less they overcome a small planet and even break it to pieces.
As of April 2015 baobabs are not yet classified by the IUCN's Red List criteria, but they are a part of the “Catalogue of Life.” The baobab is a protected tree in South Africa. In the Sahel, the effects of drought, desertification and over-use of the fruit have been cited as causes for concern.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kruger-Nationalpark (deutsch häufig falsch Krüger-Nationalpark) ist das größte Wildschutzgebiet Südafrikas. Er liegt im Nordosten des Landes in der Landschaft des Lowveld auf dem Gebiet der Provinz Limpopo sowie des östlichen Abschnitts von Mpumalanga. Seine Fläche erstreckt sich vom Crocodile-River im Süden bis zum Limpopo, dem Grenzfluss zu Simbabwe, im Norden. Die Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung beträgt etwa 350 km, in Ost-West-Richtung ist der Park durchschnittlich 54 km breit und umfasst eine Fläche von rund 20.000 Quadratkilometern. Damit gehört er zu den größten Nationalparks in Afrika.
Das Schutzgebiet wurde am 26. März 1898 unter dem Präsidenten Paul Kruger als Sabie Game Reserve zum Schutz der Wildnis gegründet. 1926 erhielt das Gebiet den Status Nationalpark und wurde in seinen heutigen Namen umbenannt. Im Park leben 147 Säugetierarten inklusive der „Big Five“, außerdem etwa 507 Vogelarten und 114 Reptilienarten, 49 Fischarten und 34 Amphibienarten.
(Wikipedia)
Der Afrikanische Affenbrotbaum (Adansonia digitata), auch Afrikanischer Baobab (von arabisch bu-hubub) genannt, zählt zur Unterfamilie der Bombacoideae in der Familie der Malvengewächse (Malvaceae). Er gehört zu den bekanntesten und charakteristischsten Bäumen des tropischen Afrika.
Der wissenschaftliche Gattungsname ehrt den europäischen Entdecker des Baums, den französischen Naturforscher Michel Adanson, der im 18. Jahrhundert in Saint-Louis den ersten Botanischen Garten Senegals anlegte. Das Artepitheton digitata spielt auf die Form der Blätter an, die sich aus fünf bis neun Einzelblättchen zusammensetzen, welche entfernt an die Finger einer menschlichen Hand erinnern.
Der Affenbrotbaum zeichnet sich durch einen relativ kurzen, extrem dicken Stamm aus. So steht in Südafrika im Letaba-Distrikt ein Affenbrotbaum, der bei einer Höhe von 19 Metern einen Stammdurchmesser von 10,64 Metern aufweist. In Ostafrika treten sehr häufig flaschenförmige Stammformen auf, bei denen sich der Stamm abrupt in wenigen Metern Höhe stark verjüngt.
Die Baumkrone besteht aus kräftigen, oft unförmig erscheinenden Ästen, die eine weit ausladende Krone bilden. Im unbelaubten Zustand erinnert die Astkrone an ein Wurzelsystem, was zu der Legende beigetragen hat, der Affenbrotbaum sei ein vom Teufel verkehrt herum gepflanzter Baum.
Der Stamm ist häufig tief gefurcht oder weist kehlige Vertiefungen auf. Die graubraune bis graue Rinde ist zwischen fünf und zehn Zentimeter dick. Deshalb kann der Baum kleinere Buschbrände relativ unversehrt überstehen. Sie ist außen hart und innen faserig. Junge Bäume haben zuerst eine Pfahlwurzel. Mit zunehmendem Alter des Baumes entwickelt sich ein Lateralwurzelsystem, das bis in 1,8 Meter Tiefe reicht. In horizontaler Richtung erstreckt sich das Wurzelsystem weiter als die Baumhöhe.
Baobab im Senegal
Bei Baobabs werden entsprechend der Stammform vier Entwicklungsphasen unterschieden: schmale Schösslinge, Kegelförmige, Flaschenförmige und Alte. Schösslinge (bis 10–15 Jahre) wachsen zunächst ohne ausgeprägtes Dickenwachstum zu einer Höhe von vier bis sechs Metern heran, die Äste ragen spitzwinklig nach oben. Auf geeigneten Standorten wachsen die jungen Baobabs anfangs jährlich zwischen 80 und 100 Zentimetern. Dann schwillt der Stamm zu einer Kegelform an (bis 60 bis 70 Jahre), der Baum wird 5 bis 15 Meter hoch und bis zu 7 Meter dick, und der Baum blüht erstmals. In einem Alter von 30 bis 40 Jahren beginnen die Äste rechtwinklig vom Stamm weg zu wachsen und nehmen ab diesem Zeitpunkt in ihrem Längenwachstum deutlich zu. Danach ist der Baum mit 10 bis 20 Metern in der Höhe ausgewachsen, der Stamm nimmt in der Dicke nur langsam zu und entwickelt eine Flaschenform (200–300 Jahre). Ein Baum kann im Alter von einhundert Jahren bereits einen Stammdurchmesser von vier bis fünf Metern erreicht haben. Schließlich entwickelt der Baum eine ausladende Krone und wächst nur noch sehr langsam in die Breite; hohle und mehrfache Stämme sind häufig zu finden (Alter: bis zu 800 Jahre).
Der Affenbrotbaum ist ein periodisch laubabwerfender Baum. Die einfachen oder handförmigen, langstieligen und wechselständigen Laubblätter erscheinen an den Zweigenden im Frühsommer kurz vor dem Beginn der Regenzeit und entwickeln sich vollständig innerhalb von vier Wochen. Bleibt der Regen aus oder ist die Regenmenge sehr gering, verzögert sich die Blattentwicklung.
Affenbrotbäume treiben zuerst Blätter von einfacher elliptischer Form aus, die jedoch sehr frühzeitig wieder abgeworfen werden; auch an jungen Pflanzen sind die Blätter einfach. Ihnen folgen glänzend grüne Laubblätter, die fünf- bis neunteilig sind. Sie haben einen Durchmesser von etwa 20 Zentimetern; die Blätter oder Blättchen sind jeweils ganzrandig und bespitzt bis zugespitzt. Der Blattstiel ist bis 16 Zentimeter lang.
Das Alter, in dem der Baum das erste Mal Blüten ansetzt, ist abhängig von seinem Verbreitungsgebiet. In Westafrika blüht der Affenbrotbaum erstmals im Alter von acht bis zehn Jahren, in Ost- und Südafrika frühestens mit 16 Jahren.
Der Blütenansatz erfolgt vier Wochen nach der Blattentwicklung. Die Hauptblütezeit beträgt vier Wochen, die einzelne Blüte blüht dagegen nur 24 Stunden. In dieser Zeit ist sie für etwa 16 bis 20 Stunden bestäubungsfähig.
Die zwittrigen Blüten mit doppelter Blütenhülle erscheinen meist einzeln oder paarig. Die sehr großen Blüten sind von wachsig-weißer Farbe und hängen an langen Stielen von den Blattachseln herab. Sie bestehen aus fünf Kronblättern, die sich ein wenig überlappen und 4,5 bis 5 Zentimeter breit und 12 Zentimeter lang sind. Sowie einem drei- bis fünflappigen, leicht haarigen Kelch. Jede Blüte beinhaltet 720 bis 1.600 rasierpinselförmig angeordnete Staubblätter, die an ihrer Basis zu einer 1,5 bis 4,5 Zentimeter langen, schmalen Röhre (Androphor) zusammengewachsen sind. Der mehrkammerige Fruchtknoten ist oberständig, mit einem langen und vorstehenden Griffel mit einer mehrlappigen Narbe. Auch hier zeigen sich geografische Unterschiede. In Ost- und Südafrika ist der Blütenstiel lediglich 20 Zentimeter lang, in Westafrika dagegen bis zu 90 Zentimeter.
Die für Menschen auf Grund ihres süßlichen Aasgeruches unangenehm riechenden Blüten öffnen sich ab dem späten Nachmittag und sind am nächsten Morgen ganz offen. Während der Nacht werden sie durch Flughunde wie den Palmen- und den Nilflughund bestäubt. Auch der Großohr-Riesengalago, der Senegal-Galago und verschiedene Nachtfalter besuchen die Blüten und tragen in kleinerem Umfang zur Bestäubung bei.
Nach der Bestäubung entwickeln sich an den langen Stielen innerhalb von acht Monaten holzige und samtig behaarte, nicht öffnende, vielsamige Kapseln, die je nach Verbreitungsgebiet unterschiedlich geformt sind. Bei in Angola verbreiteten Affenbrotbäumen ist die Frucht von länglicher Form, in den anderen natürlichen Verbreitungsgebieten eher ei- bis kugelförmig. Die an Stielen herabhängenden Früchte werden 25 bis 50 Zentimeter lang. Sie verfärben sich während des Reifungsprozesses von Grün über Gelb in ein Graubraun.
Das auch für den Menschen essbare Fruchtfleisch ist weiß und trocken-mehlig, schmeckt durch den Vitamin-C-Gehalt säuerlich und ist von einer Konsistenz, die in etwa an feste, brüchige Watte erinnert. Darin eingebettet sind die dunkelbraunen Samen der Früchte, die man herausbrechen und gleichfalls essen kann. Sie sind relativ glatt, haselnussgroß, nierenförmig und sehr fettreich.
Vor allem Elefanten und Paviane, aber auch Antilopen und Kleinsäuger fressen die Früchte und nehmen dabei auch die Samen auf, die aber den Verdauungstrakt unaufgeschlossen passieren und von Vögeln aus dem ausgeschiedenen Kot herausgepickt werden. Die Samen bleiben mehrere Jahre keimfähig. Ihre lange Keimruhe endet in der Natur vermutlich durch Buschfeuer, langanhaltende Regenfälle oder die Verdauung durch Elefanten (Endochorie).
Unbehandelt beträgt die Keimfähigkeit der Samen unter 20 %. Man kann sie künstlich keimfähig machen, indem sie mit kochend heißem Wasser übergossen und etwa einen Tag in der Flüssigkeit stehen gelassen werden. Je nach Witterungsbedingungen können solcherart vorbehandelte Samen dann nach drei Wochen bis sechs Monaten zur Keimung kommen. Auch Säurebehandlung und Anschleifen der dicken Samenschale können die Keimfähigkeit steigern.
Die Mächtigkeit der Bäume und ihre unregelmäßige Wuchsform hat immer wieder dazu geführt, dass ihr Alter überschätzt wurde. So war David Livingstone der Überzeugung, dass ein Baum, den er am Sambesi entdeckte, ein Alter von mindestens 4000 Jahren aufweise. Umfangreiche Untersuchungen in Kenia, Mali, Sudan, Tansania und Sambia haben jedoch gezeigt, dass nur sehr wenige Affenbrotbäume älter als 400 Jahre sind.
2018 berichteten Forscher von einem teilweisen bzw. vollständigen Absterben von 9 der 13 ältesten Baobabs innerhalb der vergangenen zwölf Jahre. Die Ursache hierfür sei unbekannt; womöglich hätten Klimaveränderungen einen Einfluss. Der Studie zufolge sei der weltweit älteste Baobab, Panke in Simbabwe, nach über 2.500 Jahren (2.429 [±14] Jahre mit Radiokohlenstoffmethode gemessen) in den Jahren 2010–2011 abgestorben. Der älteste weitgehend intakte Baobab sei nun Humani Bedford Old baobab in Simbabwe mit einem geschätzten Alter von 1.800 Jahren.
Die Mächtigkeit der Bäume und ihre unregelmäßige Wuchsform hat immer wieder dazu geführt, dass ihr Alter überschätzt wurde. So war David Livingstone der Überzeugung, dass ein Baum, den er am Sambesi entdeckte, ein Alter von mindestens 4000 Jahren aufweise. Umfangreiche Untersuchungen in Kenia, Mali, Sudan, Tansania und Sambia haben jedoch gezeigt, dass nur sehr wenige Affenbrotbäume älter als 400 Jahre sind.
2018 berichteten Forscher von einem teilweisen bzw. vollständigen Absterben von 9 der 13 ältesten Baobabs innerhalb der vergangenen zwölf Jahre. Die Ursache hierfür sei unbekannt; womöglich hätten Klimaveränderungen einen Einfluss. Der Studie zufolge sei der weltweit älteste Baobab, Panke in Simbabwe, nach über 2.500 Jahren (2.429 [±14] Jahre mit Radiokohlenstoffmethode gemessen) in den Jahren 2010–2011 abgestorben. Der älteste weitgehend intakte Baobab sei nun Humani Bedford Old baobab in Simbabwe mit einem geschätzten Alter von 1.800 Jahren.
Elefanten nutzen die Fähigkeit des Affenbrotbaumes zur Wasserspeicherung. Mit den Stoßzähnen brechen sie die Rinde des Affenbrotbaums auf, entfernen mit dem Rüssel die feuchten Fasern im Bauminnern und kauen diese, um so Feuchtigkeit zu gewinnen. Dabei entstehen große Hohlräume in den Bäumen, die dazu führen können, dass die Bäume kollabieren. Es sollen schon Elefanten durch plötzlich umstürzende Affenbrotbäume erschlagen worden sein.
Große Elefantenpopulationsdichten in verschiedenen Nationalparks führten und führen zu einer Gefährdung der Bestände des Baobab, da dessen natürliche Sukzession nicht ausreicht, die Bestandsdichte zu erhalten. Besonders in den Nationalparks Simbabwes gibt es mittlerweile so viele Elefanten, dass sie das langfristige Überleben der Affenbrotbaumbestände gefährden. In anderen Regionen, in denen aufgrund des Bevölkerungsdrucks die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung intensiviert wurde, fehlen dagegen Wildtiere, die die Samen der Affenbrotbäume verbreiten. Auch wenn man die Bäume, die nur sehr schwer zu roden sind, in der Regel stehen lässt, wenn Land einer landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung zugeführt wird, ist damit die natürliche Verjüngung der Bestände unterbunden.
Der Affenbrotbaum ist Wirtspflanze für eine Reihe von Insekten, die als landwirtschaftliche Schädlinge betrachtet werden, und Nebenwirt einiger, besonders für Kakao- und Baumwollpflanzungen problematischer Schadinsekten. Rodungen von Affenbrotbäumen haben jedoch gezeigt, dass diese Schädlinge auf andere Wirtspflanzen ausweichen, wenn Affenbrotbäume fehlen.
Der Affenbrotbaum bietet außerdem zahlreichen weiteren Tierarten Schutz und Nahrung. So nisten in der Krone der Affenbrotbäume beispielsweise Webervögel und Sperlingspapageien; Galagos suchen dort Schutz. Höhlen im Stamm und in den Ästen werden von Blauracken, Eisvögeln, Schleiereulen, Nashornvögeln und einer Reihe von Arten der Langflügelpapageien und Unzertrennlichen zum Brüten genutzt. In einzelnen Regionen brütete der Graukopfpapagei ausschließlich in Höhlen des Affenbrotbaums. Die Früchte des Baums werden außer von Vögeln auch von Elefanten und Pavianen sowie Antilopen und einer Reihe von Kleinsäugern gefressen.
Die San, Bewohner der Kalahari-Wüste, zapfen direkt den Wasservorrat der Bäume an, um ihren Flüssigkeitsbedarf zu decken. Auch Fruchtfleisch, Samen, Rinde, Blätter und Sprösslinge des Affenbrotbaums sind vielseitig einsetzbar; die Höhlungen des Baumes werden außerdem als Speicher für Getreide und Wasser verwendet.
Ähnlich der Rolle, die früher Linden und Eichen im mitteleuropäischen Dorfleben innehatten, spielt der Affenbrotbaum außerdem im afrikanischen Leben eine große Rolle. An zentral gelegenen Bäumen finden in vielen Dörfern Märkte, Verhandlungen und sonstige soziale Ereignisse statt.
In der afrikanischen Volksmedizin findet nahezu jeder Teil des Affenbrotbaums Verwendung. So werden die Früchte beispielsweise gegen Infektionen und Krankheiten wie Pocken und Masern eingesetzt. Die Blätter werden bei Erkrankungen wie Ruhr, Diarrhöe, Koliken und Magen-Darm-Entzündungen eingenommen. Die Samen werden als Herzmittel, bei Zahnschmerzen, Leberinfektionen und Malaria-Erkrankungen genutzt.
Biochemisch nachgewiesen wurde das Vorkommen von Proanthocyanidinen im Perikarp der Früchte. Allerdings stehen placebokontrollierte klinische Studien zur Bewertung der phytopharmakologischen Wirkstoffe aus.
Das Fruchtfleisch und die Samen sind reich an Proteinen, Kohlenhydraten und Öl und enthalten besonders die Mineralien Calcium, Kalium und Magnesium. Nach Entfernung der Samen und Fasern wird das Fruchtfleisch getrocknet und entweder unverarbeitet gegessen oder in Milch oder Breie gemischt. Aus den fettreichen Samen gewinnt man durch Pressen ein Öl, welches reich an Palmitinsäure ist und eine hohe oxidative Stabilität aufweist; in Pulverform dient es zum Andicken von Suppen. Die Samen werden auch geröstet gegessen oder fermentiert als Gewürz verwendet.
Die Blätter des Affenbrotbaums werden außerdem als Gemüse genutzt, indem sie wie Spinat zubereitet entweder frisch gegessen oder getrocknet und pulverisiert werden. 100 Gramm haben einen Energiewert von durchschnittlich 289 kJ (69 kcal) und enthalten unter anderem 3,8 Gramm Eiweiß sowie 50 Milligramm Ascorbinsäure. In Nigeria werden die Blätter als kuka bezeichnet. Kuka-Suppe ist eine für dieses Land typische Spezialität.
Auch zur Getränkeherstellung sind die Früchte geeignet: Das Fruchtfleisch kann bierartig vergoren werden. Im Sudan wird aus Fruchtfleisch mit Wasser ein Getränk unter dem Namen Tabaldi hergestellt.
Der Baum liefert darüber hinaus Material für Kleidung, zum Dachdecken, Halsschmuck, Schnüre und Seile, Netze, Matten, Hüte, Tabletts, Kisten, Körbe und Papier. Verwendet werden dafür die Fasern des inneren Bastes, die sehr dauerhaft und kräftig sind. Sie werden gewonnen, indem die Rinde der Bäume abgeschält wird. Ähnlich wie bei Korkeichen regeneriert sich die Rinde wieder, so dass die Bäume wiederholt als Bastlieferanten genutzt werden können. Aus den Wurzeln wird ein roter Farbstoff gewonnen; der Pollen ergibt, vermischt mit Wasser, einen Klebstoff. Aufgrund des hohen Pottascheanteils wird aus der Asche verschiedener Baumteile außerdem Seife hergestellt.
Affenbrotbäume, die einen hohlen Stamm haben, sollen gelegentlich als Gefängnis oder Toilette verwendet werden; aus Westafrika wird berichtet, dass hohle Affenbrotbäume auch als Begräbnisstätte fungieren.
Forstwirtschaftlich wird der Affenbrotbaum dagegen nicht genutzt. Aufgrund seiner Elastizität ist das leichte Holz nur schwer mit der Axt zu bearbeiten, und es verrottet sehr schnell.
Aufgrund seines Aussehens ranken sich mehrere Legenden um den Affenbrotbaum.
Nach einer in Afrika weit verbreiteten Vorstellung riss der Teufel den Baum aus und steckte ihn anschließend mit den Zweigen zuerst in den Boden, so dass die Wurzeln nun in die Luft ragen. Einer anderen Erzählung zufolge wollte der Baum bei seiner Entstehung schöner als alle anderen Bäume werden. Als ihm dies jedoch nicht gelang, steckte er seinen Kopf in die Erde und das Wurzelwerk ragte gegen den Himmel. Aus dem Reich der Schöpfungsmythologie erschließt sich uns eine weitere Erklärung: Als am Anbeginn der Welt die Hyäne beim ersten Blick ins spiegelnde Wasser ihre eigene Hässlichkeit erkannte, war sie darüber sehr erzürnt. Sie riss einen Baobab aus und schleuderte ihn gen Himmel, um ihren Schöpfer zu treffen, der ihr dies angetan hatte. Der Baum jedoch verfehlte sein Ziel, stürzte zurück zur Erde, blieb dort umgekehrt im Boden stecken und wächst seither mit den Wurzeln nach oben.
Als Sitz von Göttern und Geistern spielt der Baobab außerdem in einer Reihe weiterer afrikanischer Legenden und Sagen eine Rolle.
In der modernen westafrikanischen Literatur steht der Baobab häufig als ein Symbol des traditionellen afrikanischen Lebens und der unberührten, ewigen Natur. Orte mit "heiligen" Baobabs werden oftmals als Sinnbild des Garten Eden verwendet.
Auch in die europäische Kinderliteratur hat der Baum Eingang gefunden. In Antoine de Saint-Exupérys Geschichte Der Kleine Prinz sorgt sich dieser, dass Baobabs seinen kleinen Asteroiden überwuchern und mit ihrem Wurzelwerk sprengen könnten: „Die Affenbrotbäume beginnen damit klein zu sein, bevor sie groß werden.“
Auch in der modernen deutschsprachigen Lyrik ist der Affenbrotbaum gelegentlich als Sujet anzutreffen (so z. B. bei Paul Celan). Hans Magnus Enzensberger benutzt den Affenbrotbaum als Bild für das Neuronale Netz.
(Wikipedia)
Dahlia is a genus of bushy, tuberous, herbaceous perennial plants native to Mexico and Central America. As a member of the Asteraceae (former name: Compositae) family of dicotyledonous plants, its relatives include the sunflower, daisy, chrysanthemum, and zinnia. There are 49 species of dahlia, with flowers in almost every hue (except blue), with hybrids commonly grown as garden plants.
Dahlias were known to the Aztecs until their Spanish conquest, after which the plants were brought to Europe. The (high in sugar) tubers of some varieties are of value to humans.
Description
Dahlias are perennial plants with tuberous roots, though they are grown as annuals in some regions with cold winters. While some have herbaceous stems, others have stems which lignify in the absence of secondary tissue and resprout following winter dormancy, allowing further seasons of growth. As a member of the Asteraceae, the dahlia has a flower head that is actually a composite (hence the older name Compositae) with both central disc florets and surrounding ray florets. Each floret is a flower in its own right, but is often incorrectly described as a petal. The modern name Asteraceae refers to the appearance of a star with surrounding rays.
The stems are leafy, ranging in height from as low as 30 centimetres (12 inches) to more than 1.8–2.4 metres (6–8 feet). Flower forms are variable, with one head per stem; these can be as small as 5 cm (2 in) in diameter or up to 30 cm (1 ft) ("dinner plate"). The majority of species do not produce scented flowers. Like most plants that do not attract pollinating insects through scent, they are brightly colored, displaying most hues, with the exception of blue.
The great variety in species results from garden dahlias being octoploids, having eight sets of homologous chromosomes. In addition, dahlias also contain many transposons—genetic pieces that move from place to place upon an allele—which contributes to their manifesting such great diversity.
Taxonomy
Spaniards reported finding the plants growing in Mexico in 1525, but the earliest known description is by Francisco Hernández, physician to Philip II, who was ordered to visit Mexico in 1570 to study the "natural products of that country". They were used as a source of food by the indigenous peoples, who both gathered wild specimens and cultivated crops. The indigenous peoples variously identified the plants as "Chichipatl" (Toltecs) and "Acocotle" or "Cocoxochitl" (Aztecs). From Hernandez's perception of Nahuatl to Spanish (through various other translations) the word is "water cane", "water pipe", "water pipe flower", "hollow stem flower", or "cane flower", all referring to the hollow plant stems.
Hernandez described two varieties of dahlias (the pinwheel-like Dahlia pinnata and the huge Dahlia imperialis) as well as other medicinal plants of New Spain. Francisco Dominguez, an Hidalgo gentleman who accompanied Hernandez on part of his seven-year study, made a series of drawings to supplement the four volume report. Three of his drawings showed plants with flowers: two resembled the modern bedding dahlia, and one resembled the species Dahlia merckii; all displayed a high degree of doubleness. In 1578, a manuscript titled Nova Plantarum, Animalium et Mineralium Mexicanorum Historia, was sent back to the Escorial in Madrid. It was translated into Latin by Francisco Ximenes in 1615. In 1640, Francisco Cesi, President of the Academia dei Lincei of Rome, bought the Ximenes translation and, after annotating it, published it in 1649–1651 as two volumes, Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus Seu Nova Plantarium, Animalium et Mineralium Mexicanorum Historia. The original manuscripts were destroyed in a fire in the mid-1600s.
European introduction
In 1787, the French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, sent to Mexico to steal the cochineal insect valued for its scarlet dye, reported the strangely beautiful flowers he had seen growing in a garden in Oaxaca. In 1789, Vicente Cervantes, director of the Botanical Garden at Mexico City, sent "plant parts" to Abbe Antonio José Cavanilles, director of the Royal Gardens of Madrid. Cavanilles flowered one plant that same year, then the second one a year later. In 1791 he called the new growths "Dahlia" for Anders Dahl.[1] The first plant was called Dahlia pinnata after its pinnate foliage; the second, Dahlia rosea for its rose-purple color. In 1796, from the parts sent by Cervantes, Cavanilles flowered a third plant, which he named Dahlia coccinea for its scarlet color.
In 1798, Cavanilles sent D. pinnata seeds to Parma, Italy. That year, the Marchioness of Bute, wife of the Earl of Bute, the English Ambassador to Spain, obtained a few seeds from Cavanilles and sent them to Kew Gardens, where they flowered but were lost after two to three years.
The Dahlia Garden at Holland House in 1907
In the following years Madrid sent seeds to Berlin and Dresden in Germany, and to Turin and Thiene in Italy. In 1802, Cavanilles sent tubers of "these three" (D. pinnata, D. rosea, D. coccinea) to Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle at University of Montpelier in France, Andre Thouin at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris and Scottish botanist William Aiton at Kew Gardens. That same year, John Fraser, English nurseryman and later botanical collector to the Czar of Russia, brought D. coccinea seeds from Paris to the Apothecaries Gardens in England, where they flowered in his greenhouse a year later, providing Botanical Magazine with an illustration.
In 1804, a new species, Dahlia sambucifolia, was successfully grown at Holland House, Kensington. Whilst in Madrid in 1804, Lady Holland was given either dahlia seeds or tubers by Cavanilles. She sent them back to England, to Lord Holland's librarian at Holland House, who successfully raised the plants and produced two double flowers a year later. The plants raised in 1804 did not survive; new stock was brought from France in 1815. In 1824, Lord Holland sent his wife a note containing the following verse:
The dahlia you brought to our isle
Your praises for ever shall speak;
Mid gardens as sweet as your smile,
And in colour as bright as your cheek.
In 1805, German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt sent more seeds from Mexico to Aiton in England, Thouin in Paris, and Christoph Friedrich Otto, director of the Berlin Botanical Garden. More significantly, he sent seeds to botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow in Germany. Willdenow now reclassified the rapidly growing number of species, changing the genus from Dahlia to Georgina; after naturalist Johann Gottlieb Georgi. He combined the Cavanilles species D. pinnata and D. rosea under the name of Georgina variabilis; D. coccinea was still held to be a separate species, which he renamed Georgina coccinea.
Classification
Since 1789 when Cavanilles first flowered the dahlia in Europe, there has been an ongoing effort by many growers, botanists and taxonomists, to determine the development of the dahlia to modern times. At least 85 species have been reported: approximately 25 of these were first reported from the wild; the remainder appeared in gardens in Europe. They were considered hybrids, the results of crossing between previously reported species, or developed from the seeds sent by Humboldt from Mexico in 1805, or perhaps from some other undocumented seeds that had found their way to Europe. Several of these were soon discovered to be identical with earlier reported species, but the greatest number are new varieties. Morphological variation is highly pronounced in the dahlia. William John Cooper Lawrence, who hybridized hundreds of families of dahlias in the 1920s, stated: "I have not yet seen any two plants in the families I have raised which were not to be distinguished one from the other. Constant reclassification of the 85 reported species has resulted in a considerably smaller number of distinct species, as there is a great deal of disagreement today between systematists over classification.
In 1829, all species growing in Europe were reclassified under an all-encompassing name of D. variabilis, Desf., though this is not an accepted name. Through the interspecies cross of the Humboldt seeds and the Cavanilles species, 22 new species were reported by that year, all of which had been classified in different ways by several different taxonomists, creating considerable confusion as to which species was which. As of now Dahlias are classified into 15 different species by botanist Liberty Hyde Bailey.
In 1830 William Smith suggested that all dahlia species could be divided into two groups for color, red-tinged and purple-tinged. In investigating this idea Lawrence determined that with the exception of D. variabilis, all dahlia species may be assigned to one of two groups for flower-colour: Group I (ivory-magenta) or Group II (yellow-orange-scarlet).
Modern classification
The genus Dahlia is situated in the Asteroideae subfamily of the Asteraceae, in the Coreopsideae tribe. Within that tribe it is the second largest genus, after Coreopsis, and appears as a well defined clade within the Coreopsideae.
Subdivision
Infrageneric subdivision
See also: List of Dahlia species
Sherff (1955), in the first modern taxonomy described three sections for the 18 species he recognised, Pseudodendron, Epiphytum and Dahlia. By 1969 Sørensen recognised 29 species and four sections by splitting off Entemophyllon from section Dahlia. By contrast Giannasi (1975) using a phytochemical analysis based on flavonoids, reduced the genus to just two sections, Entemophyllon and Dahlia, the latter having three subsections, Pseudodendron, Dahlia, and Merckii. Sørensen then issued a further revision in 1980, incorporating subsection Merckii in his original section Dahlia. When he described two new species in the 1980s (Dahlia tubulata and D. congestifolia), he placed them within his existing sections. A further species, Dahlia sorensenii was added by Hansen and Hjerting in (1996). At the same time they demonstrated that Dahlia pinnata should more properly be designated D. x pinnata. D. x pinnata was shown to actually be a variant of D. sorensenii that had acquired hybrid qualities before it was introduced to Europe in the sixteenth century and formally named by Cavanilles. The original wild D. pinnata is presumed extinct. Further species continue to be described, Saar (2003) describing 35 species. However separation of the sections on morphological, cytologal and biocemical criteria has not been entirely satisfactory.
To date these sectional divisions have not been fully supported phylogenetically, which demonstrate only section Entemophyllon as a distinct sectional clade. The other major grouping is the core Dahlia clade (CDC), which includes most of the section Dahlia. The remainder of the species occupy what has been described as the variable root clade (VRC) which includes the small section Pseudodendron but also the monotypic section Epiphytum and a number of species from within section Dahlia. Outside of these three clades lie D. tubulata and D. merckii as a polytomy.
Horticulturally the sections retain some usage, section Pseudodendron being referred to as 'Tree Dahlias', Epiphytum as the 'Vine Dahlia'. The remaining two herbaceous sections being distinguished by their pinnules, opposing (Dahlia) or alternating (Entemophyllon).
Sections
Sections (including chromosome numbers), with geographical distribution;
Epiphytum Sherff (2n = 32)
10 m tall climber with aerial roots 5 cm thick and up to more than 20 m long; pinnules opposite
1 species, D. macdougallii Sherff
Mexico: Oaxaca
Entemophyllon P. D. Sorensen (2n = 34)
6 species
Mexico: Hidalgo, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Querétaro, Durango, San Luis Potosí
Pseudodendron P. D. Sorensen (2n = 32)
3 species + D. excelsa of uncertain identity
Mexico: Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala & Colombia
Dahlia (2n = 32, 36 or 64)
24 species
Mexico: Distrito Federal, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Morelos, Nuevo León, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Puebla, Chiapas, México, Huehuetenango, Chihuahua, Durango, Michoacan & Guatemala
Only Pseudodendron (D. imperialis) and Dahlia (D. australis, D. coccinea) occur outside Mexico.
Species
Main article: List of Dahlia species
There are currently 42 accepted species in the genus Dahlia but new species continue to be described.
Etymology
The naming of the plant itself has long been a subject of some confusion. Many sources state that the name "Dahlia" was bestowed by the pioneering Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus to honor his late student, Anders Dahl, author of Observationes Botanicae. However, Linnaeus died in 1778, more than eleven years before the plant was introduced into Europe in 1789, so while it is generally agreed that the plant was named in 1791 in honor of Dahl, who had died two years before, Linnaeus could not have been the one who did so. It was probably Abbe Antonio Jose Cavanilles, Director of the Royal Gardens of Madrid, who should be credited with the attempt to scientifically define the genus, since he not only received the first specimens from Mexico in 1789, but named the first three species that flowered from the cuttings.
Regardless of who bestowed it, the name was not so easily established. In 1805, German botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow, asserting that the genus Dahlia Thunb. (published a year after Cavanilles's genus and now considered a synonym of Trichocladus) was more widely accepted, changed the plants' genus from Dahlia to Georgina (after the German-born naturalist Johann Gottlieb Georgi, a professor at the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, Russia). He also reclassified and renamed the first three species grown, and identified, by Cavanilles. It was not until 1810, in a published article, that he officially adopted the Cavanilles's original designation of Dahlia. However, the name Georgina still persisted in Germany for the next few decades. In Russian, it is still named Georgina (Russian: георгинa).
Distribution and habitat
Dahlia is found predominantly in Mexico, but some species are found ranging as far south as northern South America. D. australis occurs at least as far south as southwestern Guatemala, while D. coccinea and D. imperialis also occur in parts of Central America and northern South America. Dahlia is a genus of the uplands and mountains, being found at elevations between 1,500 and 3,700 m (4,900 and 12,100 ft), in what has been described as a "pine-oak woodland" vegetative zone. Most species have limited ranges scattered throughout many mountain ranges in Mexico
Ecology
The most common pollinators are bees and small beetles.
Pests and diseases
Main article: List of Dahlia diseases
Slugs and snails are serious pests in some parts of the world, particularly in spring when new growth is emerging through the soil. Earwigs can also disfigure the blooms and foliage. The other main pests likely to be encountered are aphids (usually on young stems and immature flower buds), red spider mite (causing foliage mottling and discolouration, worse in hot and dry conditions) and capsid bugs (resulting in contortion and holes at growing tips). Diseases affecting dahlias include powdery mildew, grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), verticillium wilt, dahlia smut (Entyloma calendulae f. dahliae), phytophthora and some plant viruses. Dahlias are a source of food for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including angle shades, common swift, ghost moth and large yellow underwing.
Cultivation
Dahlias grow naturally in climates that do not experience frost (the tubers are hardy to USDA Zone 8), consequently they are not adapted to withstand sub-zero temperatures. However, their tuberous nature enables them to survive periods of dormancy, and this characteristic means that gardeners in temperate climates with frosts can grow dahlias successfully, provided the tubers are lifted from the ground and stored in cool yet frost-free conditions during the winter. Planting the tubers quite deep (10–15 cm or 4–6 in) also provides some protection. When in active growth, modern dahlia hybrids perform most successfully in well-watered yet free-draining soils, in situations receiving plenty of sunlight. Taller cultivars usually require some form of staking as they grow, and all garden dahlias need deadheading regularly, once flowering commences.
History
The inappropriate term D. variabilis is often used to describe the cultivars of Dahlia since the correct parentage remains obscure, but probably involves Dahlia coccinea. In 1846 the Caledonia Horticultural Society of Edinburgh offered a prize of 2,000 pounds to the first person succeeding in producing a blue dahlia. This has to date not been accomplished. While dahlias produce anthocyanin, an element necessary for the production of the blue, to achieve a true blue color in a plant, the anthocyanin delphinidin needs six hydroxyl groups. To date, dahlias have only developed five, so the closest that breeders have come to achieving a "blue" specimen are variations of mauve, purples and lilac hues.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, a number of different types were recognised. These terms were based on shape or colour, and the National Dahlia Society included cactus, pompon, single, show and fancy in its 1904 guide. Many national societies developed their own classification systems until 1962 when the International Horticultural Congress agreed to develop an internationally recognised system at its Brussels meeting that year, and subsequently in Maryland in 1966. This culminated in the 1969 publication of The International Register of Dahlia Names by the Royal Horticultural Society which became the central registering authority.
This system depended primarily on the visibility of the central disc, whether it was open-centred or whether only ray florets were apparent centrally (double bloom). The double-bloom cultivars were then subdivided according to the way in which they were folded along their longitudinal axis: flat, involute (curled inwards) or revolute (curling backwards). If the end of the ray floret was split, they were considered fimbriated. Based on these characteristics, nine groups were defined plus a tenth miscellaneous group for any cultivars not fitting the above characteristics. Fimbriated dahlias were added in 2004, and two further groups (Single and Double orchid) in 2007. The last group to be added, Peony, first appeared in 2012.
In many cases the bloom diameter was then used to further label certain groups from miniature to giant. This practice was abandoned in 2012.
Modern system (RHS)
There are now more than 57,000 registered cultivars, which are officially registered through the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). The official register is The International Register of Dahlia Names 1969 (1995 reprint) which is updated by annual supplements. The original 1969 registry published about 14,000 cultivars adding a further 1700 by 1986 and in 2003 there were 18,000. Since then about a hundred new cultivars are added annually.[
Flower type
The official RHS classification lists fourteen groups, grouped by flower type, together with the abbreviations used by the RHS;
Group 1 – Single-flowered dahlias (Sin) – Flower has a central disc with a single outer ring of florets (which may overlap) encircling it, and which may be rounded or pointed.
(e.g. 'Twyning's After Eight')
Group 2 – Anemone-flowered dahlias (Anem) – The centre of the flower consists of dense elongated tubular florets, longer than the disc florets of Single dahlias, while the outer parts have one or more rings of flatter ray florets. Disc absent.
(e.g. 'Boogie Woogie')
'
Group 3 – Collerette dahlias (Col) – Large flat florets forming a single outer ring around a central disc and which may overlap a smaller circle of florets closer to the centre, which have the appearance of a collar.
(e.g. 'Starsister', 'Lilian Alice', 'Apple Blossom')
'
Group 4 – Waterlily dahlias (WL) – Double blooms, broad sparse curved, slightly curved or flat florets and very shallow in depth compared with other dahlias. Depth less than half the diameter of the bloom.
(e.g. 'Cameo')
Group 5 – Decorative dahlias (D) – Double blooms, ray florets broad, flat, involute no more than seventy five per cent of the longitudinal axis, slightly twisted and usually bluntly pointed. No visible central disc.
(e.g. 'Berliner Kleene')
Group 6 – Ball dahlias (Ba) – Double blooms that are ball shaped or slightly flattened. Ray florets blunt or rounded at the tips, margins arranged spirally, involute for at least seventy five percent of the length of the florets. Larger than Pompons.
(e.g. 'Barbarry Ball')
Group 7 – Pompon dahlias (Pom) – Double spherical miniature flowers made up entirely from florets that are curved inwards (involute) for their entire length (longitudinal axis), resembling a pompon.
(e.g. 'Small World')
Group 8 – Cactus dahlias (C) – Double blooms, ray florets pointed, with majority revolute (rolled) over more than fifty percent of their longitudinal axis, and straight or incurved. Narrower than Semi cactus.
(e.g. 'Nuit d'Eté')
Group 9 – Semi cactus dahlias (S–c) – Double blooms, very pointed ray florets, revolute for greater than twenty five percent and less than fifty percent of their longitudinal axis. Broad at the base and straight or incurved, almost spiky in appearance.
(e.g. 'Mick's Peppermint')
'Mick's Peppermint' (Semi Cactus)
'
Group 10 – Miscellaneous dahlias (Misc) – not described in any other group.
(e.g. 'Moonfire', 'Carolina Burgundy')
'
Hybrid
Group 11 – Fimbriated dahlias (Fim) – ray florets evenly split or notched into two or more divisions, uniformly throughout the bloom, creating a fimbriated (fringed) effect. The petals may be flat, involute, revolute, straight, incurving or twisted.
(e.g. 'Marlene Joy')
'Marlene Joy' (Fimbriated)
Group 12 – Single Orchid (Star) dahlias (SinO) – single outer ring of florets surround a central disc. The ray florets are either involute or revolute.
(e.g. 'Alloway Candy)
'Alloway Candy' (Single Orchid (Star))
Group 13 – Double Orchid dahlias (DblO) – Double blooms with triangular centres. The ray florets are narrowly lanceolate and are either involute or revolute. The central disc is absent.
(e.g. 'Pink Giraffe')
'Pink Giraffe' (Double Orchid)
Group 14 – Peony-flowered dahlias (P) – Large flowers with three or four rows of rays that are flattened and expanded and arranged irregularly. The rays surround a golden disc similar to that of Single dahlias.
(e.g. 'Bishop of Llandaff')
Flower size
Earlier versions of the registry subdivided some groups by flower size. Groups 4, 5, 8 and 9 were divided into five subgroups (A to E) from Giant to Miniature, and Group 6 into two subgroups, Small and Miniature. Dahlias were then described by Group and Subgroup, e.g. 5 ‘Ace Summer Sunset’. Some Dahlia Societies have continued this practice, but this is neither official nor standardised. As of 2013 The RHS uses two size descriptors
Dwarf Bedder (Dw.B.) – not usually exceeding 600 mm (24 in) in height, e.g. 'Preston Park' (Sin/DwB)
Lilliput dahlias (Lil) – not usually exceeding 300 mm (12 in) in height, with single, semi-double or double florets up to 26 mm (1.0 in) in diameter. ("baby" or "top-mix" dahlias), e.g. 'Harvest Tiny Tot' (Misc/Lil)
Sizes can range from tiny micro dahlias with flowers less than 50mm to giants that are over 250mm in diameter. The groupings listed here are from the New Zealand Society:
Giant-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter over 250 mm.
Large-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter of 200–250 mm.
Medium-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter of 155–350 mm.
Small-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter of 115–155 mm.
Miniature-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter of 50–115 mm.
Pompom-flowered cultivars have blooms with a diameter less than 50 mm.
In addition to the official classification and the terminology used by various dahlia societies, individual horticulturalists use a wide range of other descriptions, such as 'Incurved' and abbreviations in their catalogues, such as CO for Collarette.
Branding
Some plant growers include their brand name in the cultivar name. Thus Fides (part of the Dümmen Orange Group) in the Netherlands developed a series of cultivars which they named the Dahlinova series, for example Dahlinova 'Carolina Burgundy'. These are Group 10 Miscellaneous in the RHS classification scheme.
Double dahlias
In 1805, several new species were reported with red, purple, lilac, and pale yellow coloring, and the first true double flower was produced in Belgium. One of the more popular concepts of dahlia history, and the basis for many different interpretations and confusion, is that all the original discoveries were single-flowered types, which, through hybridization and selective breeding, produced double forms Many of the species of dahlias then, and now, have single-flowered blooms. D. coccinea, the third dahlia to bloom in Europe, was a single. But two of the three drawings of dahlias by Dominguez, made in Mexico between 1570 and 1577, showed definite characteristics of doubling. In the early days of the dahlia in Europe, the word "double" simply designated flowers with more than one row of petals. The greatest effort was now directed to developing improved types of double dahlias.
During the years 1805 to 1810 several people claimed to have produced a double dahlia. In 1805 Henry C. Andrews made a drawing of such a plant in the collection of Lady Holland, grown from seedlings sent that year from Madrid. Like other doubles of the time it did not resemble the doubles of today. The first modern double, or full double, appeared in Belgium; M. Donckelaar, Director of the Botanic Garden at Louvain, selected plants for that characteristic, and within a few years secured three fully double forms. By 1826 double varieties were being grown almost exclusively, and there was very little interest in the single forms. Up to this time all the so-called double dahlias had been purple, or tinged with purple, and it was doubted if a variety untinged with that color was obtainable.
In 1843, scented single forms of dahlias were first reported in Neu Verbass, Austria. D. crocea, a fragrant variety grown from one of the Humboldt seeds, was probably interbred with the single D. coccinea. A new scented species would not be introduced until the next century when the D. coronata was brought from Mexico to Germany in 1907.
The exact date the dahlia was introduced in the United States is uncertain. One of the first dahlias in the USA may have been the D. coccinea speciosissima grown by William Leathe, of Cambridgeport, near Boston, around 1929. According to Edward Sayers, "it attracted much admiration, and at that time was considered a very elegant flower, it was however soon eclipsed by that splendid scarlet, the Countess of Liverpool". However, 9 cultivars were already listed in the catalog from Thornburn, 1825. And even earlier reference can be found in a catalogue from the Linnaean Botanical Garden, New York, 1820, that includes one scarlet, one purple, and two double orange Dahlias for sale.
Sayers stated that "No person has done more for the introduction and advancement of the culture of the Dahlia than George C. Thorburn, of New York, who yearly flowers many thousand plants at his place at Hallet's Cove, near Harlaem. The show there in the flowering season is a rich treat for the lovers of floriculture : for almost every variety can be seen growing in two large blocks or masses which lead from the road to the dwelling-house, and form a complete field of the Dahlia as a foreground to the house. Mr. T. Hogg, William Read, and many other well-known florists have also contributed much in the vicinity of New York, to the introduction of the Dahlia. Indeed so general has become the taste that almost every garden has its show of the Dahlia in the season." In Boston too there were many collections, a collection from the Messrs Hovey of Cambridgeport was also mentioned.
In 1835 Thomas Bridgeman, published a list of 160 double dahlias in his "Florist's Guide". 60 of the choicest were supplied by Mr. G. C. Thornburn of Astoria, New York, who got most of them from contacts in the UK. Not a few of them had taken prizes "at the English and American exhibitions".
"Stars of the Devil"
In 1872 J. T. van der Berg of Utrecht in the Netherlands received a shipment of seeds and plants from a friend in Mexico. The entire shipment was badly rotted and appeared to be ruined, but van der Berg examined it carefully and found a small piece of root that seemed alive. He planted and carefully tended it; it grew into a plant that he identified as a dahlia. He made cuttings from the plant during the winter of 1872–1873. This was an entirely different type of flower, with rich, red color and a high degree of doubling. In 1874 van der Berg catalogued it for sale, calling it Dahlia juarezii to honor Mexican President Benito Pablo Juarez, who had died the year before, and described it as "...equal to the beautiful color of the red poppy. Its form is very outstanding and different in every respect of all known dahlia flowers."
This plant has perhaps had a greater influence on the popularity of the modern dahlia than any other. Called "Les Etoiles du Diable" (Stars of the Devil) in France and "Cactus dahlia" elsewhere, the edges of its petals rolled backwards, rather than forward, and this new form revolutionized the dahlia world. It was thought to be a distinct mutation since no other plant that resembled it could be found in the wild. Today it is assumed that D. juarezii had, at one time, existed in Mexico and subsequently disappeared. Nurserymen in Europe crossbred this plant with dahlias discovered earlier; the results became the progenitors of all modern dahlia hybrids today.
Award of Garden Merit (RHS)
Main article: List of Award of Garden Merit dahlias
As of 2015, 124 dahlia cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, including:-
"Bednall beauty"
"Bishop of Llandaff"
"Clair de lune"
"David Howard"
"Ellen Huston"
"Fascination"
"Gallery Art Deco"
"Gallery Art Nouveau"
"Glorie van Heemstede"
"Honka"
"Moonfire"
"Twyning's After Eight"
Uses
The Aztecs used dahlias to treat epilepsy, and employed the long hollow stem of the D. imperialis for water pipes. Europeans attempted to introduce the tubers as a food crop, but this was unpopular.
The dahlia is considered one of the native ingredients in Oaxacan cuisine; several cultivars are still grown especially for their large, sweet potato-like tubers. Dacopa, an intense mocha-tasting extract from the roasted tubers, is used to flavor beverages throughout Central America.
Medicine
In Europe and America, prior to the discovery of insulin in 1923, diabetics—as well as consumptives—were often given a substance called Atlantic starch or diabetic sugar, derived from inulin, a naturally occurring form of fruit sugar, extracted from dahlia tubers. Inulin is still used in clinical tests for kidney functionality.
In culture
Founded in 1936, the Bloemencorso Zundert is the largest flower parade in the world entirely made by volunteers using the dahlia. The parade takes place on the first Sunday of September in Zundert, Netherlands. The floats are large artworks made of steel wire, cardboard, papier-mâché and flowers. In the Bloemencorso Zundert, mostly dahlias are used to decorate the objects and it takes thousands of them just to cover one float. Around 8 million dahlias are needed for the entire corso. Of these, around 6 million are cultivated in Zundert.
The dahlia was declared the national flower of Mexico in 1963.
+++++++ FROM WIKIPEDIA +++++
Ficus carica is an Asian species of flowering plant in the mulberry family, known as the common fig. It is the source of the fruit also called the fig and as such is an important crop in those areas where it is grown commercially. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been sought out and cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world, both for its fruit and as an ornamental plant.[3][4] The species has become naturalized in scattered locations in Asia and North America.[5][6]
Etymology
The word fig, first recorded in English in the 13th century, derives from (Old) French figue, itself from Occitan (Provençal) figa, from Romance *fica, from Classical Latin ficus (fig or fig-tree).[7] Italian has fico, directly derived from Latin ficus. The name of the caprifig, Ficus caprificus Risso, is derived both from Latin capro (billygoat) and English fig.[8]
Biology
Description
Ficus carica is a gynodioecious, deciduous tree or large shrub that grows up to 7–10 metres (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth white bark. Its fragrant leaves are 12–25 centimetres (4.7–9.8 in) long and 10–18 centimetres (3.9–7.1 in) wide, and are deeply lobed (three or five lobes).
The fig fruit develops as a hollow, fleshy structure called the syconium that is lined internally with numerous unisexual flowers. The tiny flowers bloom inside this cup-like structure. Although commonly called a fruit, the syconium is botanically an infructescence, a type of multiple fruit. The small fig flowers and later small single-seeded (true) fruits line its interior surface. A small opening or ostiole, visible on the middle of the fruit, is a narrow passage that allows the specialized fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes to enter the inflorescence and pollinate the flowers, after which each fertilized ovule (one per flower, in its ovary) develops into a seed. At maturity, these 'seeds' (actually single-seeded fruits) line the inside of each fig. See Ficus: Fig fruit and reproduction system.
The edible mature syconium stem develops into a fleshy false fruit bearing the numerous one-seeded fruits, which are technically druplets.[9] The whole fig fruit is 3–5 centimetres (1.2–2.0 in) long, with a green skin that sometimes ripens toward purple or brown. Ficus carica has milky sap, produced by laticifer cells. The sap of the green parts is an irritant to human skin.[10]
Habitat
The common fig tree has been cultivated since ancient times and grows wild in dry and sunny locations with deep and fresh soil, and in rocky locations that are at sea level to 1,700 metres in elevation. It prefers relatively porous and freely draining soil, and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Unlike other fig species, Ficus carica does not always require pollination by a wasp or from another tree,[11][12] because the fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes can pollinate it so as to produce seeds. Fig wasps are not present to pollinate in colder nations, e. g. the United Kingdom.[13]
The plant tolerates seasonal drought, and the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates are especially suitable to it. Situated in a favorable habitat, mature specimens can grow to considerable size as large, dense, shade trees. Its aggressive root system precludes its cultivation in many urban locations, yet in nature this characteristic helps the plant to root in the most inhospitable locations. Having a great need of water, it is mostly a phreatophyte that extracts the needed water from sources in or on the ground. Consequently, it frequently grows in locations with standing or running water, e. g. in valleys of rivers and in ravines that collect water. The deeply rooted plant searches for groundwater in aquifers, ravines, or cracks in rocks. With access to this water, the tree cools the hot environments in which it grows, thus producing fresh and pleasant habitat for many animals that shelter in its shade during periods of intense heat.
The mountain or rock fig ("Anjeer Kohi", انجیر کوهی, in Persian) is a wild variety, tolerant of cold dry climates, of the semi-arid rocky montane regions of Iran, especially in the Kohestan Mountains of Khorasan.[10]
Ecology
Ficus carica is dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter their seeds in droppings. Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. The common fig tree also sprouts from the root and stolon tissues.
The infructescence is pollinated by a symbiosis with a fig wasp (Blastophaga psenes). The fertilized female wasp enters the fig through the scion, which has a tiny hole in the crown (the ostiole). She crawls on the inflorescence inside the fig and pollinates some of the female flowers. She lays her eggs inside some of the flowers and dies. After weeks of development in their galls, the male wasps emerge before the females wasps do through holes they produce by chewing the galls. The male wasps then fertilize the female wasps by depositing semen in the hole in the gall. The male wasps later return to the remaining female wasps and enlarge the holes to enable the female wasps to emerge. Then some males enlarge holes in the scion, which enables the female wasps to disperse after collecting pollen from the developed male flowers. Female wasps now have a short time (<48 hours) to find another fig tree with receptive scions to spread the pollen, assist the tree in reproduction, and lay their own eggs to start a new cycle.[13]
Cultivation
The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. Nine subfossil figs of a parthenocarpic (and therefore sterile) type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). The find precedes the domestication of wheat, barley, and legumes, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that this sterile but desirable type was planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat and rye).[14]
Figs were widespread in ancient Greece, and their cultivation was described by both Aristotle and Theophrastus. Aristotle noted that as in animal sexes, figs have individuals of two kinds, one (the cultivated fig) that bears fruit, and one (the wild caprifig) that assists the other to bear fruit. Further, Aristotle recorded that the fruits of the wild fig contain psenes (fig wasps); these begin life as larvae, and the adult psen splits its "skin" (pupa) and flies out of the fig to find and enter a cultivated fig, saving it from dropping. Theophrastus observed that just as date palms have male and female flowers, and that farmers (from the East) help by scattering "dust" from the male onto the female, and as a male fish releases his milt over the female's eggs, so Greek farmers tie wild figs to cultivated trees. They do not say directly that figs reproduce sexually, however.[15]
Figs were also a common food source for the Romans. Cato the Elder, in his c. 160 BC De Agri Cultura, lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian (De agri cultura, ch. 8). The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor of foie gras. Rome's first emperor, Augustus, was reputed to have been poisoned with figs from his garden smeared with poison by his wife Livia.[16][17] For this reason, or perhaps because of her horticultural expertise, a variety of fig known as the Liviana was cultivated in Roman gardens.[18]
It was cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of India. From the 15th century onwards, it was grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New World.[3] In the 16th century, Cardinal Reginald Pole introduced fig trees to Lambeth Palace in London.
In 1769, Spanish missionaries led by Junipero Serra brought the first figs to California. The Mission variety, which they cultivated, is still popular.[19] The fact that it is parthenocarpic (self-pollinating) made it an ideal cultivar for introduction.
The Kadota cultivar is even older, being mentioned by the Roman naturalist Pliny in the 1st century A.D.[20]
Overwintering
People of the Italian diaspora who live in cold-winter climates have the practice of burying imported fig trees to overwinter them and protect the fruiting hard wood from cold.[21] Italian immigrants in the 19th century introduced this common practice in cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Toronto, where winters are normally too cold to leave the tree exposed.[22] This practice consists in digging a trench that is appropriate to the size of the specimen, some of which are more than 10 feet tall, severing part of the root system, and bending the specimen into the trench. Specimens are often wrapped in waterproof material to discourage development of mould and fungus, then covered with a heavy layer of soil and leaves. Sometimes plywood or corrugated metal is placed on top to secure the tree.[23] In borderline climates like New York City burying trees is no longer needed because low winter temperatures have increased. Often specimens are simply wrapped in plastic and other insulating material, or not protected if planted in a sheltered site against a wall that absorbs sunlight.[22]
Modern
Variegated fig
Fresh figs
The common fig is grown for its edible fruit throughout the temperate world. It is also grown as an ornamental tree, and in the UK the cultivars 'Brown Turkey'[24] and ‘Ice Crystal’ (mainly grown for its unusual foliage)[25] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[26]
Figs are also grown in Germany, mainly in private gardens inside built up areas. There is no commercial fig growing.[27] The Palatine region in the German South West has an estimated 80,000 fig trees. The variety Brown Turkey is the most widespread in the region.[28] There are about a dozen quite widespread varieties hardy enough to survive winter outdoors mostly without special protection. There are even two local varieties, "Martinsfeige" and "Lussheim", which may be the hardiest varieties in the region.[29]
As the population of California grew, especially after the gold rush, a number of other cultivars were brought there by persons and nurserymen from the east coast of the US and from France and England. By the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that California had the potential for being an ideal fig producing state because of its Mediterranean-like climate and latitude of 38 degrees, lining up San Francisco with Smyrna, Turkey. G. P. Rixford first brought true Smyrna figs to California in 1880. The most popular cultivar of Smyrna-type fig is Calimyrna, being a name that combines "California" and "Smyrna". The cultivar, however, is not one that was produced by a breeding program, and instead is from one of the cuttings brought to California in the latter part of the 19th century. It is identical to the cultivar Lob Injir that has been grown in Turkey for centuries.[20]
Figs can be found in continental climates with hot summers as far north as Hungary and Moravia. Thousands of cultivars, most named, have been developed as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. Fig plants can be propagated by seed or by vegetative methods. Vegetative propagation is quicker and more reliable, as it does not yield the inedible caprifigs. Seeds germinate readily in moist conditions and grow rapidly once established. For vegetative propagation, shoots with buds can be planted in well-watered soil in the spring or summer, or a branch can be scratched to expose the bast (inner bark) and pinned to the ground to allow roots to develop.[30]
Two crops of figs can be produced each year.[31] The first or breba crop develops in the spring on last year's shoot growth. The main fig crop develops on the current year's shoot growth and ripens in the late summer or fall. The main crop is generally superior in quantity and quality, but some cultivars such as 'Black Mission', 'Croisic', and 'Ventura' produce good breba crops.
There are three types of edible figs:[32]
Persistent (or common) figs have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting; the fruit can develop through parthenocarpic means. This is a popular horticulture fig for home gardeners. Dottato (Kadota), Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.
Caducous (or Smyrna) figs require cross pollination by the fig wasp with pollen from caprifigs for the fruit to mature. If not pollinated the immature fruits drop. Some cultivars are Marabout, Inchàrio, and Zidi.
Intermediate (or San Pedro) figs set an unpollinated breba crop but need pollination for the later main crop. Examples are Lampeira, King, and San Pedro.
There are dozens of fig cultivars, including main and breba cropping varieties, and an edible caprifig (the Croisic). Varieties are often local, found in a single region of one country.[31][33]
Breeding
While the fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop, a formal breeding program was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century.[34] Ira Condit, "High Priest of the Fig," and William Storey tested some thousands of fig seedlings in the early 20th century based at University of California, Riverside.[33] It was then continued at the University of California, Davis. However, the fig breeding program was ultimately closed in the 1980s.[34]
Due to insect and fungal disease pressure in both dried and fresh figs, the breeding program was revived in 1989 by James Doyle and Louise Ferguson using the germplasm established at UC Riverside by Ira Condit and William Storey. Crosses were made and two new varieties are now in production in California: the public variety "Sierra", and the patented variety "Sequoia".[35]
In 2018, world production of raw figs was 1.14 million tonnes, led by Turkey (with 27% of the world total), Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria as the largest producers collectively accounting for 64% of the total.[36]
Food
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used in jam-making. Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well. The widely produced fig roll is a biscuit (cookie) with a filling made from figs.
In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from August through to early October. Fresh figs used in cooking should be plump and soft, and without bruising or splits. If they smell sour, the figs have become over-ripe. Slightly under-ripe figs can be kept at room temperature for 1–2 days to ripen before serving. Figs are most flavorful at room temperature.[37]
Nutrition
Raw figs are 79% water, 19% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). They are a moderate source (14% of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber per 100-gram serving (74 calories), and do not supply essential micronutrients in significant contents (table).
When dehydrated to 30% water, figs have a carbohydrate content of 64%, protein content of 3%, and fat content of 1%.[38] In a 100-gram serving providing 249 calories, dried figs are a rich source (more than 20% DV) of dietary fiber and the essential mineral manganese (26% DV), while calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and vitamin K are in moderate amounts.[38]
Research and folk medicine
Phytochemicals
Figs contain diverse phytochemicals under basic research for their potential biological properties, including polyphenols, such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin and rutin.[39][40] Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations of anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside having particularly high content.[41]
Folk medicine
In some old Mediterranean folk practices, the milky sap of the fig plant was used to soften calluses, remove warts, and deter parasites.[42]
Toxicity
Like other plant species in the family Moraceae, contact with the milky sap of Ficus carica followed by exposure to ultraviolet light can cause phytophotodermatitis,[43][44] a potentially serious skin inflammation. Although the plant is not poisonous per se, F. carica is listed in the FDA Database of Poisonous Plants.[45]
Organic chemical compounds called furanocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis in humans.[46] The common fig contains significant quantities of two furanocoumarins, psoralen and bergapten.[47] The essential oil of fig leaves contains more than 10% psoralen, the highest concentration of any organic compound isolated from fig leaves.[48] Psoralen appears to be the primary furanocoumarin compound responsible for fig leaf-induced phytophotodermatitis.
Psoralen and bergapten are found chiefly in the milky sap of the leaves and shoots of F. carica but not the fruits.[47] Neither psoralen nor bergapten were detected in the essential oil of fig fruits.[48] Thus there is no conclusive evidence that fig fruits cause phytophotodermatitis.
In religion and mythology
In the Biblical Book of Genesis, Adam and Eve clad themselves with fig leaves (Genesis 3:7) after eating the "forbidden fruit" from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Likewise, fig leaves, or depictions of fig leaves, have long been used to cover the genitals of nude figures in painting and sculpture, for example in Masaccio's The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Moreover, according to the Aggadah (Jewish text), the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden was not an apple, but a fig.
The Book of Deuteronomy specifies the fig as one of the Seven Species (Deuteronomy 8:7-8), describing the fertility of the land of Canaan. This is a set of seven plants indigenous to the Middle East that together can provide food all year round. The list is organized by date of harvest, with the fig being fourth due to its main crop ripening during summer.
Babylonian Ishtar for example took the form of the divine fig tree Xikum, the "primeval mother at the central place of the earth", protectress of the savior Tammuz. Moreover, fig and the fig tree were closely linked with female sexuality. In Barbara Walker's encyclopedia on Goddess symbols we learn that the fig leaf is the conventional form of the yoni. "This may account for the common use of the fig tree as a symbol of man's enlightenment, which was formerly supposed to come through his connection with the female principle."[49]
The biblical quote "each man under his own vine and fig tree" (Micah 4:4) has been used to denote peace and prosperity. It was commonly quoted to refer to the life that would be led by settlers in the American West,[50] and was used by Theodor Herzl in his depiction of the future Jewish Homeland: "We are a commonwealth. In form it is new, but in purpose very ancient. Our aim is mentioned in the First Book of Kings: 'Judah and Israel shall dwell securely, each man under his own vine and fig tree, from Dan to Beersheba".[51] United States President George Washington, writing in 1790 to the Touro Synagogue of Newport, Rhode Island, extended the metaphor to denote the equality of all Americans regardless of faith.[52]
Sura 95 of the Qur'an is named al-Tīn (Arabic for "The Fig"), as it opens with the oath "By the fig and the olive." The fruit is also mentioned elsewhere in the Qur'an. Within the Hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari records Muhammad stating: "If I had to mention a fruit that descended from paradise, I would say this is it because the paradisiacal fruits do not have pits...eat from these fruits for they prevent hemorrhoids, prevent piles and help gout."[53]
Regular green tea is 99.9% water, provides 1 kcal per 100 mL serving, is devoid of significant nutrient content (table), and contains phytochemicals such as polyphenols and caffeine.
Numerous claims have been made for the health benefits of green tea, but human clinical research has not found good evidence of benefit. In 2011, a panel of scientists published a report on the claims for health effects at the request of the European Commission: in general they found that the claims made for green tea were not supported by sufficient scientific evidence. Although green tea may enhance mental alertness due to its caffeine content, there is only weak, inconclusive evidence that regular consumption of green tea affects the risk of cancer or cardiovascular diseases, and there is no evidence that it benefits weight loss.
SN/NC: Kalanchoe brasiliensis, Crassulaceae Family
Kalanchoe brasiliensis and Kalanchoe pinnata (Crassulaceae), known as "saião" and "coirama", have wide popular use in the treatment of peptic ulcers and cutaneous inflammations. It is worth mentioning that K. pinnata is present in the National List of Plants of Interest of the Unified Health System - RENISUS (2009). Within this context, the objective of the present study was to characterize the chemical markers in the leaf juices of both species and to evaluate the gastroprotective and topical anti-inflammatory activities. Phytochemical characterization was performed by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometer (UHPLC- MS). Gastroprotective activity was evaluated in ethanol and indomethacin induced acute ulcer models, whereas gastric secretion was evaluated in the pylorus ligature model in Wistar rats. Pre-treatment was performed with the juices at the doses of 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg and ranitidine (50 mg/kg) orally. The topical anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in the carrageenan induced paw edema model and croton oil-induced ear edema in Swiss mice using gel formulations containing the juices at different concentrations (1,25%, 2,5% and 5%) and as the standard drug dexamethasone (1mg/g), all administered topically immediately after induction. The TLC analysis revealed the presence of flavonoid stains in the juices of both species after revelation with the Natural Reagent A, being observed that the two species have different flavonoid profiles. In the analysis by UHPLC-MS the K. brasiliensis leaf juice showed glycosylated flavonoids derived mainly from patuletin, while that of K. pinnata presented glycosylated flavonoids derived mainly from quercetin. The pre-treatment with the K. brasiliensis leaf juice at doses of 125 mg/kg (P<0,01), 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg (P<0,001) and K. pinnata at doses of 125 mg/kg (P<0,01), 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg (P<0,001) significantly reduced the lesions compared to the positive control in the ethanol induction model. In the indomethacin induction model, the K. brasiliensis leaf juice showed significant results at doses of 250 mg/kg (P<0,05) and 500 mg/kg (P<0,01) and K. pinnata at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg (P<0,001). Reduction of lesions was accompanied by an increase in total glutathione content and reduction of malondialdehyde levels. In addition, levels of myeloperoxidase, IL-1β and TNF-α were reduced. Cytoprotective effect was also observed in histological evaluation with H&E and maintenance of mucus production with PAS, as well as reduction of iNOS and NF-κB p65 expression and increased expression of ZO-1 by immunohistochemistry. Leaf juices from both species did not change the acidity, pH and volume of the gastric juice. In the ear edema model, the formulations containing the three concentrations of the K. brasiliensis leaf juice significantly reduced the edema when compared to the placebo group (1,25% P<0,05, 2,5% P<0,01 and 5% P<0,01). However, only the formulation containing the juice of the K. pinnata leaf juice at 5% concentration showed a significant result (P<0,01). In the paw edema model, the formulations containing the K. brasiliensis leaf juice at concentrations of 1,25 and 2,5% significantly reduced (P<0,05) the edema in the time 4 h. The formulation at 5% concentration significantly reduced edema at 1 h (P <0,001), 2 h, 3 h and 4 h (P <0,01). Regarding the formulations containing the K. pinnata leaf juice, the concentration of 1,25% significantly reduced the edema in the time 1 h (P<0,01) and 2 h (P<0,05), in the concentration of 5% significantly reduced in time 1 h (P<0,05). The decrease in edema was followed by reduction of miloperoxidase. It was concluded that the juices of both species presented gastroprotective and topical anti-inflammatory activity in vivo models, results that justify the popular use of the species.
Nome científico: Kalanchoe brasiliensis Cambess. Família Crassulaceae.Nome botânico aceito: Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) DC. Outros nomes populares: coerana, coirama, folha-da-fortuna, folha-da-costa, erva-da-costa, folha-grossa, orelha-de-monge ou saião. Sua origem é africana e ela também é conhecida como kalandiva. Constituintes químicos: tanino; mucilagem; bioflavonóides (quercetina); ácidos orgânicos.Propriedades medicinais: cicatrizante, emolientes. Indicações: afecções pulmonares, aftas, asma, cálculos renais, calos, diabete, doenças do pulmão, erisipelas, feridas, frieiras, picadas de inseto, queimaduras, tosse, tuberculose, tumores, úlceras, verrugas. Parte utilizada: folhas. Contra-indicações/cuidados: não encontrados na literatura consultada. Modo de usar: suco da folha: uso interno: afecções pulmonares, diabete, emolientes, cálculos renais; infusão: uso interno: tosse, asma; folha murcha: uso externo: erisipelas, tumores, verrugas, calos, picadas de inseto
Los Kalanchoe este es un género de plantas tropicales, dentro de este se encuentra aproximadamente 125 especies, se le conoce también como planta de Goethe esto a honor de un poeta y botánico alemán llamado Michel Adanson, otros nombres populares de esta planta en Latinoamérica son: bruja, prodigiosa, hoja de aire, siempre viva, hierba de bruja, también se conoce como Kalanchoe oreja de burro entre otros, conoce más sobre ella a continuación. Estas tres especies de Kalanchoe se puede ingerir sus hojas crudas en ensaladas o jugo fresco o té, sirvieron para combatir eficazmente el cáncer, los tumores y los abscesos, la hipertensión, los cólicos renales, la diarrea, las enfermedades psicológicas como esquizofrenia, ataques de pánico y miedos. Los estudios clínicos en Kalanchoe indican que puede ser tóxica si se utiliza en exceso la planta e indican que el consumo de más de 5 gramos / día por kilo de peso de la persona, es tóxico, la dosis recomendada es 10 veces menos que esta cantidad, 30 gramos de hoja fresca en dos dosis.
Esta planta Reduce las contracciones uterinas y su consumo debe evitarse durante el embarazo, es tóxico para perros y gatos, se ha visto que las flores de Kalanchoe pinnata eran tóxicas para el corazón en el ganado.
En la India se utiliza para las enfermedades del hígado, muchos laboratorios de universidades y hospitales de todo el mundo han encontrado sus efectos anticancerígenos, el Kalanchoe contiene diferentes productos químicos, incluyendo: flavonoides, ácidos grasos, y como triterpenoides bufadienólidos que tienen actividad citotóxica contra varias líneas celulares de cáncer.
Los esteroides cardiofácticos bufadienólidos son conocidos por los antiguos egipcios y romanos, Los bufadienólidos son compuestos orgánicos encontrados en algunas plantas como kalanchoe y ranas venenosas, los numerosos estudios existentes demuestran que los bufadienólidos tienen actividad antitumoral.
Mucho se habla de esta planta y su acción sobre el cáncer te dejo un video con mas información.
El agricultor catalán Josep Pàmies señala que por su fuerza y capacidad de regeneración y multiplicación, el kalanchoe podría ser considerado una maleza, pero estas mismas cualidades podrían ser las victorias contra las células cancerígenas agresivas e invasoras que se dividen sin control. (www.hablemosdeflores.com)
#AbFavFood
The blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) is a woody shrub in the family Grossulariaceae grown for its piquant berries.
It is native to temperate parts of central and northern Europe and northern Asia where it prefers damp fertile soils and is widely cultivated both commercially and domestically.
It is winter-hardy, but cold weather at flowering time during the spring reduces the size of the crop.
Bunches of small, glossy black fruit develop along the stems in the summer and can be harvested by hand or by machine. The raw fruit is particularly rich in vitamin C and polyphenol phytochemicals.
Blackcurrants can be eaten raw but are usually cooked in a variety of sweet or savoury dishes.
They are used to make jams, jellies and syrups and are grown commercially for the juice market.
The fruit is also used in the preparation of alcoholic beverages and both fruit and foliage have uses in traditional medicine and the preparation of dyes.
THANK YOU, M, (*_*)
Eighty-seven percent of U.S. adults say they like onions,1 which is great news since they're one of the healthiest foods you can eat. Rich in vitamin C, sulphuric compounds, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals,2 an onion a day may help keep the doctor away.
A Raspberry, a small strawberry and a blueberry, health on a stick lol
Red fruits and vegetables, such as strawberries, raspberries, cherries, are in a group containing phytochemicals that are powerful antioxidants that help control high blood pressure and protect against diabetes-related circulatory and cancer.
Thank you for ALL your faves and comments, M, (* _ *)
A MUST LARGE and View On Black
For more here: www.indigo2photography.com
IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN (BY LAW!!!) TO USE ANY OF MY image or TEXT on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagetes_erecta
Tagetes erecta, the Mexican marigold, is a species of the genus Tagetes native to Mexico and Central America. In Mexico, this plant is found in the wild in the states of San Luis Potosí, Chiapas, State of México, Puebla, Sinaloa, Tlaxcala and Veracruz. This plant reaches heights of between 50 and 100 cm. The Aztecs gathered the wild plant as well as cultivating it for medicinal, ceremonial and decorative purposes.
Its flower, the cempasúchil is also called the Flower of the Dead in Mexico ("Flor de Muertos") and is used in the Día de los Muertos celebration every November 2nd. The word cempasúchil (also spelled cempazúchil) comes from the Nahuatl term for the flower zempoalxochitl, literally translated as "twenty flower".
Since prehispanic times, this plant has been used for medicinal purposes. It has been used to treat stomach ache, parasites, diarrhea, liver illnesses, vomiting, indigestion and toothache among other illnesses. Scientific study shows that thiophenes, natural phytochemicals that include sulfur-containing rings, may be the active ingredients. They have been shown to kill gram negative and gram positive bacteria in vitro.
Today, T. erecta is grown to extract lutein as a food colour (E161b).
The Scoville Scale is used to measure the heat in peppers in Scoville Heat units (SHU). It is a function of the main phytochemical in peppers that give them their heat, called capsaicin. The habanero chili peppers are 260,000 SHU, whereas the Scotch bonnet pepper is about 445,000 SHU.
Here we see the fractal pattern of Romanesco broccoli, a variant form of cauliflower. The fractal arrangement of the florets in this vegetable's head is amazing!!
As you move your cursor over the photo, you will see the three frames aka notes that I have added to show three sections of the broccoli that are similar to the next larger size (where it exists, of course.)
Romanesco broccoli exhibits "self similarity" characteristic of fractals in mathematics. It also exhibits "scale Invariance" ... Any smaller section of this head of broccoli has the same shapes and patterns as a larger section To me, that is so amazing!!
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-similar
In mathematics, a self-similar object is exactly or approximately similar to a part of itself (i.e. the whole has the same shape as one or more of the parts). Many objects in the real world, such as coastlines, are statistically self-similar: parts of them show the same statistical properties at many scales.[2] Self-similarity is a typical property of fractals.
Scale invariance is an exact form of self-similarity where at any magnification there is a smaller piece of the object that is similar to the whole. For instance, a side of the Koch snowflake is both symmetrical and scale-invariant; it can be continually magnified 3x without changing shape.
The non-trivial similarity evident in fractals is distinguished by their fine structure, or detail on arbitrarily small scales. As a counterexample, whereas any portion of a straight line may resemble the whole, further detail is not revealed.
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Cauliflower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauliflower
For other uses, see Cauliflower (disambiguation).
Cauliflower
Cauliflower.JPG
Cauliflower, cultivar unknown
Details
SpeciesBrassica oleracea
Cultivar groupBotrytis cultivar group
OriginNortheast Mediterranean
Cultivar group
membersMany; see text.
Cauliflower, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy104 kJ (25 kcal)
Carbohydrates5 g
- Sugars1.9 g
- Dietary fiber2 g
Fat0.3 g
Protein1.9 g
Water92 g
Thiamine (vit. B1)0.05 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)0.06 mg (5%)
Niacin (vit. B3)0.507 mg (3%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)0.667 mg (13%)
Vitamin B60.184 mg (14%)
Folate (vit. B9)57 μg (14%)
Vitamin C48.2 mg (58%)
Vitamin E0.08 mg (1%)
Vitamin K15.5 μg (15%)
Calcium22 mg (2%)
Iron0.42 mg (3%)
Magnesium15 mg (4%)
Manganese0.155 mg (7%)
Phosphorus44 mg (6%)
Potassium299 mg (6%)
Sodium30 mg (2%)
Zinc0.27 mg (3%)
Link to USDA Database entry
Percentages are roughly approximated
using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea, in the family Brassicaceae. It is an annual plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head (the white curd) is eaten. The cauliflower head is composed of a white inflorescence meristem. Cauliflower heads resemble those in broccoli, which differs in having flower buds.
Its name is from Latin caulis (cabbage) and flower,.[1] Brassica oleracea also includes cabbage, brussels sprouts, kale, broccoli, and collard greens, though they are of different cultivar groups.
For such a highly modified plant, cauliflower has a long history. François Pierre La Varenne employed chouxfleurs in Le cuisinier françois.[2] They were introduced to France from Genoa in the 16th century, and are featured in Olivier de Serres' Théâtre de l'agriculture (1600), as cauli-fiori "as the Italians call it, which are still rather rare in France; they hold an honorable place in the garden because of their delicacy",[3] but they did not commonly appear on grand tables until the time of Louis XIV.[4]
Contents
1 Classification and identification
1.1 Major groups
1.2 Varieties
1.3 Colors
2 Nutrition
3 Cooking
4 Fractal dimension
5 History
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Classification and identification[edit]
Major groups
There are four major groups of cauliflower.[5]
Italian
Diverse in appearance, and biennial and annual in type, this group includes white, Romanesco, various green, purple, brown and yellow cultivars. This type is the ancestral form from which the others were derived.
Northwest European biennial
Used in Europe for winter and early spring harvest, this was developed in France in the 19th century, and includes the old cultivars Roscoff and Angers.
Northern European annuals
Used in Europe and North America for summer and fall harvest, it was developed in Germany in the 18th century, and includes the old cultivars Erfurt and Snowball.
Asian
A tropical cauliflower used in China and India, it was developed in India during the 19th century from the now-abandoned Cornish type,[6] and includes old varieties Early Patna and Early Benaras.
Varieties
There are hundreds of historic and current commercial varieties used around the world. A comprehensive list of about 80 North American varieties is maintained at North Carolina State University.[7]
Colors
White
White cauliflower is the most common color of cauliflower.
Orange
Orange cauliflower (B. oleracea L. var. botrytis) contains 25% more vitamin A than white varieties.[8] This trait came from a natural mutant found in a cauliflower field in Canada.[9] Cultivars include 'Cheddar' and 'Orange Bouquet'.
Green
Green cauliflower, of the B. oleracea botrytis group, is sometimes called broccoflower. It is available both with the normal curd shape and a variant spiky curd called Romanesco broccoli. Both types have been commercially available in the U.S. and Europe since the early 1990s. Green-curded varieties include 'Alverda', 'Green Goddess' and 'Vorda'. Romanesco varieties include 'Minaret' and 'Veronica'.
Purple
The purple color in this cauliflower is caused by the presence of the antioxidant group anthocyanins, which can also be found in red cabbage and red wine.[10] Varieties include 'Graffiti' and 'Purple Cape'. In Great Britain and southern Italy, a broccoli with tiny flower buds is sold as a vegetable under the name "purple cauliflower". It is not the same as standard cauliflower with a purple curd.
White cauliflower
Orange cauliflower
Purple cauliflower
Nutrition
Cauliflower is low in fat, low in carbohydrates but high in dietary fiber, folate, water, and vitamin C, possessing a high nutritional density.[11]
Cauliflower contains several phytochemicals, common in the cabbage family, that may be beneficial to human health.
Sulforaphane, a compound released when cauliflower is chopped or chewed, may protect against cancer.
Other glucosinolates
Carotenoids[11]
Indole-3-carbinol, a chemical that enhances DNA repair,[12][13] and acts as an estrogen antagonist,[14] slowing the growth of cancer cells.
Boiling reduces the levels of these compounds, with losses of 20–30% after five minutes, 40–50% after ten minutes, and 75% after thirty minutes.[15] However, other preparation methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir frying, have no significant effect on the compounds.[15]
A high intake of cauliflower has been associated with reduced risk of aggressive prostate cancer.[16]
Cooking
Aloo gobi, an Indian dish prepared with cauliflower and potato
Cauliflower can be roasted, boiled, fried, steamed, or eaten raw. Steaming or microwaving better preserves anticancer compounds than boiling.[15] When cooking, the outer leaves and thick stalks are removed, leaving only the florets. The leaves are also edible, but are most often discarded.[17] The florets should be broken into similar-sized pieces so they are cooked evenly. After eight minutes of steaming, or five minutes of boiling, the florets should be soft, but not mushy (depending on size). Stirring while cooking can break the florets into smaller, uneven pieces.
Low carbohydrate dieters can use cauliflower as a reasonable substitute for potatoes or rice; while they can produce a similar texture, or mouth feel, they lack the starch of the originals.
Fractal Dimension
Fractal pattern of Romanesco broccoli, a variant form of cauliflower
Cauliflower has been noticed by mathematicians for its distinct fractal dimension,[18][19] predicted to be about 2.8.[20]
History
The first reliable reference to cauliflower is found in the writings of the Arab Muslim scientists Ibn al-'Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, in the 12th and 13th centuries.[21]
IMG_9233 - Version 2
My Daily Baby Spinach Salad. I have switched from Iceberg lettuce to Spinach because Spinach is a Super food loaded with Vitamins and Minerals you just dont find in any other food.
Health Benefits of Spinach
Like other dark greens, spinach is an excellent source of beta-carotene, a powerful disease-fighting antioxidant that's been shown, among other things, to reduce the risk of developing cataracts. It fights heart disease and cancer as well.
As a dark, leafy green, spinach possesses several important phytochemicals, including lutein, which helps prevent age-related macular degeneration. Spinach also contains lipoic acid, which helps antioxidant vitamins C and E regenerate. Because of its role in energy production, lipoic acid is being investigated for regulating blood sugar levels.
Served raw, spinach is a good source of vitamin C, another powerful antioxidant. Overcook it, however, and you lose most of this important vitamin. Though spinach is rich in calcium, most of it is unavailable, because oxalic acid in spinach binds with calcium, preventing its absorption. The abundant potassium in spinach is available, and it will promote heart health. When you cook spinach, it cooks down tremendously. Because cooking concentrates nutrients and fiber, a serving of cooked spinach gives you even more bang for your buck than a serving of raw.
A 10-ounce bag of raw spinach, which contains approximately 284 grams of spinach, provides 1,585 milligrams of potassium.
Potassium functions as an electrolyte, which means that it helps balance the amount of fluid in your body and transmits electrical impulses produced by nerves, making it vital to muscle function. Potassium works closely with other electrolytes including sodium and calcium and staying healthy requires a balance between these minerals. In fact, the American Heart Association stresses the importance of potassium because it lessens the effects of sodium and helps control blood pressure.