Geodynamics photos on Flickr

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Thais abstract scene was not taken on the surface of Mars. It is one of the geothermal basins in Yellowstone National Park.

Hot! Hot! Hot! ...and pure, but if one looks close we see the remains of human life with a piece of litter that must of blown out over the spring mineral water.

Connecting the world by Tati@

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Il Sardinia Radio Telescope (spesso abbreviato in SRT) è un radiotelescopio completato nel 2011 e situato nel territorio del comune di San Basilio, in provincia di Cagliari.

E' dedicato per l'80% del tempo alla ricerca scientifica, mentre per il rimanente 20% svolge funzioni di controllo delle missioni automatiche di esplorazione spaziale e dei satelliti artificiali in orbita intorno alla Terra.

The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT) is a large, fully steerable radio telescope completed in 2011, near San Basilio, province of Cagliari in Sardinia. It represents a flexible instrument for Radio Astronomy, Geodynamical studies and Space science.

,

All material in my gallery MAY NOT be reproduced, copied, edited, published, transmitted or uploaded in any way without my permission.

VALLE DE LOS CAÍDOS - Madrid by Javier Gallego

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Una vez que se suben las escaleras de la nave dirigiéndose hacia el crucero, se observan a los lados ocho estatuas sobre sendas pilastras, obra de Antonio Martín y Luis Sanguino, con la cabeza inclinada y cubierta, invitando a una actitud de respeto y silencio, porque el visitante se encuentra en un espacio sagrado y concretamente en un gran cementerio de guerra. Representan a contendientes caídos en la guerra por tierra, mar y aire y como voluntarios. Vemos dos de ellas a ambos lados de la imagen.

Al principio, a la izquierda, se halla una loseta por la que se desciende a un centro de detección de terremotos y de otros estudios científicos: el Laboratorio de Geodinámica y de Mareas Terrestres del Valle de los Caídos, dependiente de la Facultad de Ciencias Matemáticas de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid y del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (C.S.I.C.), que cuenta también con otras instalaciones en el Poblado y en la base de la Cruz.

Once you climb the stairs of the nave heading towards the transept, you can see on the sides eight statues on pilasters, the work of Antonio Martín and Luis Sanguino, with their heads bowed and covered, inviting an attitude of respect and silence, because the visitor finds himself in a sacred space and specifically in a large war cemetery. They represent fallen contenders in the war on land, sea and air and as volunteers. We see two of them on both sides of the image.

At the beginning, to the left, there is a tile through which you descend to a center for earthquake detection and other scientific studies: the Geodynamics and Terrestrial Tides Laboratory of the Valley of the Fallen, dependent on the Faculty of Mathematical Sciences. from the Complutense University of Madrid and the Higher Council for Scientific Research (C.S.I.C.), which also has other facilities in El Poblado and at the base of La Cruz.

Planet Earth is blue🔵 and there's nothing I can do. by Danilo Salis

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Sardinia Radio Telescope.

The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT, Lat. 39.4930N - Long. 9.2451E) is a 64-meter single-dish radio telescope with state-of-the-art technological capabilities. The SRT is a versatile instrument for radio astronomy, geodynamical studies and space science, which can be operated in either single dish or Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) mode.

Sardinia Radio Telescope by Ivan Pedretti

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The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT, Lat. 39°29'34"N - Long. 9°14'42" E) is a major radio astronomical facility almost ready for outstanding scientific observations. It represents a flexible instrument for Radio Astronomy, Geodynamical studies and Space science, either in single dish or VLBI mode. SRT combines one of the largest steerable collecting area all over the World with state-of-the-art technology to enable high efficiency up to the 3-mm frequency band.

Melba Roy Mouton – Mathematician by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center

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Melba Roy Mouton (1929-1990) was a mathematician and computer programmer in NASA’s Trajectory and Geodynamics Division, acting as the Assistant Chief of Research Programs. Mouton worked at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, coding computer programs to calculate the trajectories and locations of various aircraft. She also led the group of "human computers," who tracked the Echo satellites. Roy and her team's computations helped produce the orbital element timetables by which millions could view the satellite from Earth as it passed overhead.

Image Credit: NASA

#nasa #NASAmarshall #history #blackhistorymonth #BHM

Marshall History

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Peña National Palace, Sintra Portugal by Harold Litwiler

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Wikipedia,

Sintra

Municipality

UNESCO

Clockwise: Pena National Palace; Azenhas do Mar; Quinta da Regaleira; Seteais Palace; Praia da Ursa; Monserrate Palace.

Flag of Sintra

Flag

Coat of arms of Sintra

Coat of arms

Coordinates: 38°47′57″N 9°23′18″W

Country Portugal

RegionLisbon

Metropolitan areaLisbon

DistrictLisbon

Parishes11 (list)

Government

• PresidentBasílio Horta (PS)

Area

• Total

319.23 km2 (123.26 sq mi)

Elevation175 m (574 ft)

Lowest elevation0 m (0 ft)

Population (2011)

• Total

377,835

• Density1,200/km2 (3,100/sq mi)

Time zoneUTC+00:00 (WET)

• Summer (DST)UTC+01:00 (WEST)

Postal code

2714

Area code219

PatronSão Pedro

Websitehttp://www.cm-sintra.pt

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official nameCultural Landscape of Sintra

CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, v

Reference723

Inscription1995 (19th Session)

Area946 ha

Sintra (/ˈsɪntrə, ˈsiːntrə/,[1][2][3] Portuguese: [ˈsĩtɾɐ] ⓘ) is a town and municipality in the Greater Lisbon region of Portugal, located on the Portuguese Riviera. The population of the municipality in 2021 was 385,654,[4] in an area of 319.23 square kilometres (123.26 sq mi).[5] Sintra is one of the most urbanized and densely populated municipalities of Portugal. A major tourist destination famed for its picturesqueness, the municipality has several historic palaces, castles, scenic beaches, parks and gardens.

The area includes the Sintra-Cascais Nature Park through which the Sintra Mountains run. The historic center of the Vila de Sintra is famous for its 19th-century Romanticist architecture, historic estates and villas, gardens, and royal palaces and castles, which resulted in the classification of the town as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sintra's landmarks include the medieval Castle of the Moors, the romanticist Pena National Palace and the Portuguese Renaissance Sintra National Palace.

Sintra is one of the wealthiest municipalities in both Portugal and the Iberian Peninsula as a whole.[6][7][8][9] It is home to one of the largest foreign expatriate communities along the Portuguese Riviera,[10][11][12][13][14] and consistently ranks as one of the best places to live in Portugal.[15][16] The ECB Forum on Central Banking, an annual event organised by the European Central Bank, is held in Sintra.[17]

History

Prehistory to Moorish era

Anta de Adrenunes.

Anta do Monte Abraão.

The earliest remnants of human occupation were discovered in Penha Verde: these vestiges testify to an occupation dating to the early Paleolithic.[18] Comparable remnants were discovered in an open-air site in São Pedro de Canaferrim, alongside the chapel of the Castelo dos Mouros (Moorish Castle), dating back to the Neolithic, and include decorated ceramics and microlithic flint utensils from the 5th millennium BC.[19]

Ceramic fragments found locally including many late Chalcolithic vases from the Sintra mountains suggest that between the fourth and third millennia B.C. the region (adjacent to the present village of Sintra) was occupied by a Neolithic/Chalcolithic settlement, with characteristics comparable to fortified settlements in Lisbon and Setúbal.[18] The evidence discovered in Quinta das Sequoias and São Pedro de Canaferrim contrasts dramatically with those remnants discovered in the walled town of Penha Verde and the funerary monument of Bella Vista.[18] Traces of several Bronze Age remains were also discovered in many places in the Sintra Mountains, including alongside the town, in the Monte do Sereno area, and a late Bronze Age settlement within the Moorish Castle dating to the 9th–6th centuries B.C.

The most famous object from this period is the so-called Sintra Collar, a middle Bronze Age gold neck-ring found near the city at the end of the 19th century, which since 1900 has been part of the British Museum's collection. Relatively close by, in Santa Eufémia da Serra, is an Iron Age settlement where artifacts from indigenous tribes and peoples of Mediterranean origins (principally from the Punic period) were also discovered.[18]

These date from the early 4th century B.C., prior to the Romanization of the peninsula, which in the area of Foz do Tejo took place in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.[18] Close proximity to a large commercial centre (Olisipo) founded by the Turduli Oppidani people in the first half of the first millennium B.C., meant that the region of Sintra was influenced by human settlement throughout various epochs, cultures that have left remains in the area to this day. The toponym Sintra derives from the medieval Suntria, and points to an association with radical Indo-European cultures; the word translates as 'bright star' or 'sun', commonly significant in those cultures.[18] Marcus Terentius Varro and Cadizian Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella designated the place "the sacred mountain" and Ptolemy referred to it as the "mountains of the moon".[18]

Part of the Roman Dam of Belas complex, showing the ventilation structures (foreground) and the remaining dam segment (background).

During the Roman occupation of the peninsula, the region of Sintra was part of the vast Civitas Olisiponense which Caesar (around 49 B.C.) or more likely Octavius (around 30 B.C.) granted the status of Municipium Civium Romanorum. The various residents of the region were considered part of the Roman Galeria and in the present village of Sintra there are Roman remains testifying to a Roman presence from the 1st–2nd centuries B.C. to the 5th century A.D. A roadway along the southeast part of the Sintra Mountains and connected to the main road to Olisipo dates from this period.[18]

Roman Bridge of Catribana.

This via followed the route of the current Rua da Ferraria, the Calçada dos Clérigos and the Calçada da Trindade.[18] Following the Roman custom of siting tombs along their roads and near their homes, there is also evidence of inscriptions pertaining to Roman funeral monuments, dating mainly to the 2nd century. The area around the modern town of Sintra, due to its proximity to Olisipo, the ancient name of Lisbon, was always profoundly interconnected with the major settlement, to the point that the Fountain of Armés, a 1st-century fountain in the village of Armés, Terrugem, in Sintra, has been built by Lucius Iulius Maelo Caudicus, an Olisipo flamen, to honour the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The Castle of the Moors, on the hilltops of Sintra

It was during the Moorish occupation of Sintra (Arabic: Xintara) that Greco-Latin writers wrote of the explicit occupation of the area of the town centre. A description by the geographer Al-Bacr, described Sintra as "one of the towns that [are] dependent on Lisbon in Al-Andalus, in proximity to the sea", characterizing it as "permanently submersed in a fog that never dissipates".[18]

During the Reconquista (around the 9th century), its principal centre and castle were isolated by Christian armies. Following the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba, the King of León, Alfonso VI received in the spring of 1093, the cities of Santarém, Lisbon and the Castle of Sintra.[18] This followed a period of internal instability within the Muslim taifas of the peninsula, and in particular the decision by the ruler of Taifa of Badajoz, Umar ibn Muhammad al-Mutawakkil who, after hesitating from 1090 to 1091, placed his territory under the suzerainty of Alfonso VI when faced with the threat of the Almoravids. Afonso took the cities and the castle of Sintra between 30 April and 8 May 1093, but shortly after their transfer Sintra and Lisbon were conquered by the Almoravids.[18] Santarém was saved by Henry, who Alfonso had nominated Count of Portugal in 1096, to replace Raymond of Burgundy.[18]

Kingdom

The remnants of the chapel of São Pedro de Canaferrim, constructed by Afonso Henriques following the surrender of Moors in Sintra

In July 1109, Count Henry reconquered the Castle of Sintra.[18] This was preceded a year before by an attempt by Prince Sigurd the Crusader, son of Magnus III of Norway, to capture the castle from the Moors in the course of his trek to the Holy Land. Sigurd's forces disembarked at the mouth of the Colares River but failed to take the castle. But it was only after the conquest of Lisbon, in October 1147, by Afonso Henriques (supported by Crusaders), that the castle surrendered definitively to the Christians, in November.[18] It was integrated into Christian dominions along with Almada and Palmela after their surrender. Afonso Henriques established the Church of São Pedro de Canaferrim within the walls of the Moorish Castle to mark his success.[18]

The municipal building of Sintra, constructed after 1154 to house the local administration

On 9 January 1154, Afonso Henriques signed a foral ("charter") for the town of Sintra, with all its respective regalia. The charter established the municipality of Sintra, whose territory encompassed a large area, eventually divided into four great parishes: São Pedro de Canaferrim (in the castle), São Martinho (in the town of Sintra), Santa Maria and São Miguel (in the ecclesiastical seat of Arrabalde).[18] The early municipal seat, the town of Sintra, was the centre of a significant Sephardic community, with a synagogue and quarter. This community was not limited to Sintra town: enclaves are mentioned during the reign of King Denis in Colares, but were heavily pressured by the influx of Christian serfs.[18] Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the fertility of the land, various convents, monasteries and military orders constructed residences, estates, water-mills and vineyards. There are municipal records from this period of a number of donations and grants; between 1157 and 1158, Afonso Henriques donated to the master of the Knights Templar, Gualdim Pais, various houses and estates in the centre of Sintra.[18]

In 1210, the Monastery of Santa Cruz in Coimbra acquired four houses in Pocilgais, releasing them in 1230, while in 1264 it controlled homes and vineyards in Almargem.[18] In 1216 the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora (Lisbon) also held a vineyard in Colares and, in 1218, estates in Queluz and Barota. At some time between 1223 and 1245, the Monastery of Santa Maria de Alcobaça held various privileges in the territory. The military Order of Santiago owned an estate in Arrifana in 1260.[18] Many of Afonso Henriques' donations in the 12th century, including privileges assigned to these institutions, were confirmed in 1189 by his son, Sancho I (1185–1211), corresponding to a social, political and economic strategy during the post-Reconquista era.[18] Consequently, after 1261, Sintra had a local administration consisting of an alcalde representing the Crown, and two local judges elected by the public. During the political conflict between King Sancho II (1223–1248) and the Church, the churches of São Pedro and São Martinho, which belonged to the King, were ceded to the Bishop of Lisbon and Sé.[18] Yet the Crown's patrimony was defined early: in 1287, King Denis donated to Queen Elizabeth of Portugal the town, the signeurial holdings and all their associated benefits. Later, these lands were transferred to the young Infante Afonso (later King Afonso IV), and remained in his possession until 1334, before reverting to the ownership of the queen (Portuguese: Casa da Rainha).[18]

The Black Death arrived in Sintra in the 14th century; in 1350, the disease is known to have caused the death of five municipal scribes. Far greater numbers of deaths probably resulted, perhaps owing to the cool climate and humidity, conditions that favoured the rapid spread of the disease.[18]

The Palace of Sintra, for a long time the residence of royal family during the summer

During the reign of King Ferdinand (1367–1383), Sintra played a part in the controversial marriage of the monarch to Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes. In 1374, the King donated Sintra to the Lady Telles, whom he eventually married in secret in the north of the country.[18] Along with Sintra the King conceded the municipalities of Vila Viçosa, Abrantes and Almada, to the consternation of his private council; following a confrontation the King abandoned his duties and travelled to Sintra, where he remained for a month on the pretext of hunting.[18] As Sintra was located relatively close to Lisbon, many of its people were called to work on projects for the Crown in the capital: in 1373, King Ferdinand decided to wall the city, and requested funds or workers from coastal lands in Almada, Sesimbra, Palmela, Setúbal, Coina, Benavente and Samora Correia, as well as all of Ribatejo, and from the inland areas of Sintra, Cascais, Torres Vedras, Alenquer, Arruda, Atouguia, Lourinhã, Telheiros and Mafra. During the Dynastic Crisis between 1383 and 1385, Sintra joined Leonor Telles in supporting the proclamation of her daughter, Beatrice, who married John I of Castile, as Queen of Portugal and Castile. After the defeat of the Castilian army at Aljubarrota (August 1385) by Portuguese and English troops, commanded by Nuno Álvares Pereira, Sintra became one of the last places to surrender to the Master of Aviz, later King of Portugal (after 1383).

Joanine and Philippine era

John I (1385–1433), first King of the second dynasty, broke the tradition of transferring Sintra to the Casa da Rainha (Queen's property). Probably around 1383, John I granted the lands of Sintra to Count Henrique Manuel de Vilhena, quickly revoking the decision after Henrique took the Infanta's side during the dynastic quarrel. Sintra, therefore, continued as a possession of the King, who expanded the local estate. Until the end of the 17th century, the royal palace constituted one of the principal residences and summer estates of the court: it was from here that John decided to conquer Ceuta (1415); King Afonso V was born and died at the palace (1433–1481); and here King John II (1481–1495) was acclaimed sovereign.[18]

In a document issued in 1435 by King Edward (1433–1438), the region was described as: "A land of good air and water and of the Comarcas with an abundance in the sea and land [...] our most loyal city of Lisbon being so near, and being in it sufficient diversions, and the distractions of the mountains and hunting...".[18]

During the Portuguese Age of Discovery, several people born in Sintra were written into history. In 1443 Gonçalo de Sintra, squire in the House of the Infante Henry, was sent by the prince as captain of a caravel to the coast of Africa. He explored the region near the Ouro River and eventually died there in 1444.[18] Pedro de Sintra and Soeiro da Costa later mapped most of the Atlantic coast of Africa, around the time of Henry's death in 1460.[18]

At the end of the 15th century the importance of Sintra on official itineraries led Queen Eleanor of Viseu (wife of King John II), then principal benefactor of the Portuguese Misericóridas, to expand her principal institutions in Sintra.[18] The Hospital e Gafaria do Espírito Santo, the only remnant of which left standing is a chapel to São Lázaro, was constructed to provide assistance and support to lepers in the region (the chapel still includes the signets of King John, the pelican, and Queen Leonor, the shrimp). In 1545, the hospital was transferred to the administration of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia of Sintra which was set up by Queen Catherine of Austria, wife of John III.

King Manuel I (1495–1521) enjoyed spending his summers in Sintra, due to its cool climate and abundance of game; as Damião de Góis, his chronicler noted: "because it is one of the places in Europe that is cooler, and cheerful for whichever King, Prince or Master to pass their time, because, in addition to its good airs, that cross its mountains, called by the older peoples the promontory of the moon, there is here much hunting of deer and other animals, and overall many and many good trout of many type, and in which in all of Hispania there can be found, and many springs of water...".[18] Between the 15th and 16th century, after travelling to the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon when being considered as heir to the Kingdoms in 1498, the King transformed and enriched the town and its region with several public works. These included the reconstruction of the old Gothic Church of São Martinho and in 1511 the construction of the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena on the highest peak of the Sintra Mountains, which he then transferred to the Order of Saint Jerome. In the second half of the 16th century, Sintra was a centre for courtesans and members of the aristocracy began building estates and farms within the region.[18] In this rural environment, from 1542, the Viceroy of India, D. João de Castro (1500–1548) began residing at Quinta da Penha Verde, where he collected examples of Portuguese culture of the time, including works by celebrated artist Francisco de Holanda.[18] It was during this cultural Renaissance that the marble chancel sculpted between 1529 and 1532 by Nicolau Chanterene for the chapel of the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena was completed, as was the portico of the Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição da Ulgueira (1560).[18]

The Convent of the Capuchos, the monastic retreat established during the primordial history of the municipality (16th century)

Luís de Camões (1524–1580) referred to the mountains of Sintra in his Os Lusíadas chronicle, as a mythic land ruled by water nymphs. The Renaissance poet Luisa Sigea—Syntrae Aloisiae Sygeae in Paris (1566) and Madrid (1781) referred to Sintra as a "pleasant valley, between cliffs that rise into the heavens...curved in graceful hills among which one can feel the murmur of the waters...[where] everything, in fact, will enchant and perfume the environment with its fragrance and fruit."[18]

With the death of the Cardinal-King Henry (1578–1580), Philip II of Spain inherited the Kingdom of Portugal, initiating a personal union of the crowns that would last until 1640. During this period, Portuguese political power moved from Sintra to Vila Viçosa, principal centre of the House of Braganza, whose dukes, descendants of John of Portugal, were heirs to the throne of Portugal. Following the decision of the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Phillip as King of Portugal accepted an administration composed of the Portuguese aristocracy. He passed through Sintra around October 1581, visiting the monasteries and churches.[18] It was during this period that cult of Sebastianism, the hope for the return of King Sebastian, came to an end, when several fake "Sebastians" were denounced.[18] In 1585 Mateus Alvares, born on the island of Terceira in the Azores and guardian of the hermitage of São Julio, passed himself off as King Sebastian and created conflict in Sintra, Madra, Rio de Mouro and Ericeira. The Sebastian adventure ended with the hanging of thirty people and the suffering of many more. It was not surprising, therefore, that the visit in 1619 by King Philip IV of Spain (Philip III of Portugal) resulted in many families escaping to the hills. During this union (1580–1640), Sintra was a privileged place for Portuguese "exiles" from the Castilian court; nobles who wished to distance themselves from Spanish nobility would purchase lands in the region, away from court intrigue.[18] At the time of the Restoration, in 1640, the municipality had approximately 4000 residents.

Brigantine era

Royal Palace of Queluz.

The war with Spain (1640–1668), the affirmation of Mafra during the reign of John V of Portugal (1706–1750) through the construction of the Palace-Convent, and later the construction of Royal Palace of Queluz in 1747 during the reigns of Joseph I (1750–1777) and Maria I (1777–1816), helped diminish royal visits to the region.[18] During this time there were only two documented visits: in 1652 and 1654, respectively the visit of Queen Luísa de Gusmão and King John IV (1640–1656), and the final burial of King Afonso VI.[18]

Ill-fated king Afonso VI imprisoned in the Palace of Sintra, by painter Alfredo Roque Gameiro.

Alleging the insanity of the King and the incapacity of the heir, the Duke of Cadaval and the Infante Peter led a coup d'état in 1667 which resulted in the resignation of the Count of Castelo Melhor, Minister of King Afonso VI (1656–1683) and the imprisonment of the monarch.[18] In 1668 the Cortes of Lisbon confirmed the Infante Peter, the king's brother, as regent and heir. Afonso VI lived the rest of his life imprisoned, in the Paço da Ribeira (1667–1669), in the Fortress of Saint John the Baptist in Angra, in the Azores (1669–1674) and in the end, with the discovery of a conspiracy to kill the regent, in the Paço da Vila in Sintra (1674–1683).[18]

From the 17th to the 18th centuries, the region was centre of contemplative religious orders who established convents in Sintra. But it remained a place of myths, with a large, mysterious forest and macabre, gloomy spaces. Father Baião, in his Portugal Cuidadoso (1724) noted: "Next to the Palace of Sintra was a forest, so thick, that during the day, it cast fear in him who entered it. And [King] D. Sebastian was free from these fears, that he would walk at night, through it, many times for two or three hours."[18] Starting in the second half of the 18th century and lasting through the 19th century Sintra became known as a nostalgic and mysterious location described by many foreigners.

Lord Byron (1788–1824) particularly enjoyed his stay in Sintra that is described in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage as "glorious Eden".

It was the Romantic Lord Byron's "glorious Eden"; Almeida Garrett's "pleasant resort"; Eça de Queirós's "nest of lovers [where, in] the romantic foliage, the nobles abandoned themselves in the hands of the poets"; or the place where Richard Strauss saw a garden "comparable to Italy, Sicily, Greece or Egypt, a true garden of Klingsor, and there in the heights, a castle of the Holy Grail".[18]

The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, meanwhile, caused the destruction of the centre of Sintra as well as a number of deaths, resulting in building and restoration in the second half of the 18th century. Also in the 18th century, the first industrial building was established in the town: the Fábrica de Estamparia de Rio de Mouro (Mouro River Stamping Factory) in 1778.

The front façade of Seteais Palace, expanded for the visits of the royal family, by the Marquess of Marialva

The visit of Queen Maria I in 1787 brought about the restoration and redecoration of a few salons and chambers in the municipal buildings. The great festivities of 1795 to celebrate the baptism of the Infante António, son of John VI, resulted in grand balls at the Palace of Queluz. In 1838 the King-Consort, Ferdinand II bought the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena and a vast adjacent area, commissioning the architect José de Costa e Silva to construct an arch joining the two quarters of the Seteais Palace (owned by the Marquis of Marialva), to commemorate the 1802 visit of the Prince and Princess of Brazil, John and Carlota Joaquina, and the subsequent visit of their son, the absolutist King Miguel, in 1830.[18]

The arabesque Monserrate Estate on another hilltop near the town of Sintra

During the third quarter of the 18th century and practically all of the 19th century, foreign travellers and Portuguese aristocrats, fired by Romanticism, rediscovered the magic of Sintra, especially in its exotic landscapes and climate. Their visits led to the establishment of several hotels, one of which, Lawrence's, opened in 1764, was still functioning in 2018. In the summer of 1787, William Beckford stayed with the Marquis of Marialva, master of the horse for the kingdom, at his residence of Seteais. At the beginning of the 19th century Princess Carlota Joaquina, wife of Prince Regent John, bought the estate and Ramalhão Palace. Between 1791 and 1793, Gerard Devisme constructed a Neo-Gothic mansion on his extensive estate in the Quinta de Monserrate (later known as the Monserrate Palace). Beckford, who remained in Sintra, rented the property from Devisme in 1794. The landscape, covered in fog, also attracted another Englishman, Sir Francis Cook, who occupied the estate, constructing an oriental pavilion.[18]

The Pena National Palace: summer residence of the monarchs of Portugal during the 19th century

Quinta da Regaleira, an integral landmark of Sintra's UNESCO Cultural Landscape

The Palace of Pena, Sintra's exemplary Portuguese Romantic symbol, was initiated by the King-Consort Ferdinand, husband of Queen Maria II (1834–1853), a German-born member of the House of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha. The palace was built over the remains of the 16th-century monastery of the Order of Saint Jerome, conserving many fundamental aspects, including the church, cloister and a few dependencies. The architecture is eclectic, influenced by many architectural styles, evidence of an era of Romanticism.

The intentional mixture of eclectic styles includes the Neo-Gothic, Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic, Neo-Renaissance neo-Islamic, and neo-Manueline styles. Much of this has been evident since a major restoration that was completed prior to 1900.[20]

The design was a project of the Baron von Eschwege and Ferdinand II, to substitute the Sintra National Palace as an alternative to the summer residence in Cascais. After Sintra, the monarchs Louis of Portugal (1861–1889) and Carlos of Portugal (1863–1908) ended their summers with visits to Cascais in the months of September and October.

In 1854, the first contract was signed to construct a rail link between Sintra and Lisbon. A decree signed on 26 June 1855 regulated the contract between the government and Count Claranges Lucotte but was later rescinded in 1861. The connection was finally inaugurated on 2 April 1887.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Sintra was recognized as a summer resort visited by aristocrats and millionaires. Among these, Carvalho Monteiro, owner of a considerable fortune (known as "Monteiro dos Milhões") constructed near the main town, on an estate he bought from the Baroness of Regaleira, a luxurious revivalist palacette, based on a Neo-Manueline architecture.

From the second half of the 19th century into the first decades of the 20th century, Sintra also became a privileged place for artists: musicians such as Viana da Mota; composers such as Alfredo Keil, painters like João Cristino da Silva (author of one of the most celebrated canvases of Portuguese Romantic art, "Five Artists in Sintra [pt]"), writers such as Eça de Queirós or Ramalho Ortigão, all these people lived, worked or got inspiration from Sintra's landscapes.[18]

Republic

Part of the historic centre

The proclamation of a Portuguese Republic in 1910 transformed the bohemian climate of Sintra. Economic development was now promoted; the potential benefits to the region of growth in agriculture, industry and commerce were promoted to foster development. In 1908 a wine growing zone had been demarcated in Colares. Now a commission was established to monitor the quality of wines and promote their exportation, and in 1914 a commercial association (Portuguese: Associação Comercial e Industrial de Sintra) was set up to manage their concession. Meanwhile, in the name of secular and popular progress, parts of the cultural heritage were destroyed, including the annexes of the medieval village bordering the palace in 1911, while the nave of the Church of the Misericórdia was reduced to the presbytery to allow the road to be widened. The first decades of the 20th century were the time of the fastest urbanization of the town, supported by its rail link to Lisbon and the influx of summer travellers.

During the 1920s damage to culturally important sites led to the creation of institutions to study and protect the vast artistic heritage. The Instituto Histórico de Sintra (Historic Institute of Sintra), under the direction of Afonso de Ornelas, played an important part in this period.[18] Archaeological studies resulted in considerable development: in 1927, Félix Alves Pereira rediscovered the Neolithic settlements of Santa Eufémia, and the first publication of the discoveries at the prehistoric monuments of Praia das Maçãs were completed in 1929.[18] From this time until the 1970s, coastal Sintra was becoming a summer destination, resulting in the building of Portuguese summer residences.[18] Many important Portuguese architects developed projects in the area in the first half of the 20th century, including Raul Lino, Norte Júnior and Tertuliano de Lacerda Marques.

These projects benefited town and region, increased tourism and attracted as residents many notable Portuguese: historian Francisco Costa; writer Ferreira de Castro; sculptor Anjos Teixeira; architects Norte Júnior and Raul Lino; painters Eduardo Viana, Mily Possoz and Vieira da Silva; poet Oliva Guerra; composer and maestro Frederico de Freitas; historians Felix Alves Pereira and João Martins da Silva Marques.[18]

In 1944, prior to his arrest, Vichy France Prime Minister Pierre Laval had planned to move to an estate in Sintra, where a house had been leased for him.[21]

The 1949 municipal plan by De Groer was devised to protect the town and its neighbourhood from uncontrolled urbanization, and resulted in the maintenance of an environment comparable to 19th century Sintra.[18] Urban anarchy predominated until the middle of the 1980s in the areas adjacent to the main town of Sintra, resulting in the development of new neighbourhoods.[18]

Geography

Physical geography

The town of Sintra sitting atop the Sintra Mountains, the exposed granite formation of igneous rock extending to the Atlantic Ocean

The Sintra Mountains, a granite massif ten kilometres long – considered the Monte da Lua (Mountain of the Moon), or Promontorium Lunae by the strong local tradition of astral cults – emerge abruptly between a vast plain to the north and the northern margin of the Tagus River estuary, winding in a serpentine cordillera towards the Atlantic Ocean and Cabo da Roca, the most westerly point of continental Europe.

The imposing cliffs which delimit the Sintra range and the Atlantic

The São João platform, along the northern flank of the Sintra Mountains, has altitudes between 100 metres (110 yd) and 150 metres (160 yd), while the southern part of the mountains, the Cascais platform, is lower: sloping from 150 metres (160 yd) to the sea, terminating along the coast, around 30 metres (33 yd) above sea level.[22][23] The spectacular relief results from the east–west orientation of the massif's axis, its terminus at the coast, and the nature of igneous rocks, which are resistant to erosion.[23] The Eruptive Massif of Sintra (MES) is a dome structure, formed by layers of sedimentary rocks (limestones and sandstones) from the Upper Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods.[23] A metamorphosed igneous intrusion resulted in a narrow halo of metamorphic rocks, but also strongly deformed these sedimentary layers causing a vertical exposure.[23] While in the south there are enclosed sedimentary layers, to the north (around Praia Grande) the massif is steep. The sedimentary formations, until the beginning of the Upper Cretaceous, are deformed by the intrusion which limits the MES to the end the Cretaceous.[23] Radiometric aging of different rocks from the massif has indicated an age between 80 and 75 million years (confirming the installation of the massive Upper Cretaceous).[23]

Beach in Azenhas do Mar, Sintra

The geodynamic conditions that controlled the formation of the MES (correlated with the development of the Sines and Monchique Eruptive Massifs) are associated with the progressive northern expansion of the Atlantic Ocean and the consequent opening of the Bay of Biscay.[23] The Bay of Biscay's expansion resulted in complex tensions responsible for profound fractures in the Earth's crust that were conduits for the ascension of magma.[23] Around 80 million years ago this magma spread across the surface as a superficial crust with a depth of 5 kilometres between sedimentary layers (160 to 9 million years old) that were chemically metamorphosed.[23] Over time the magma chamber cooled and crystallized, resulting in conditions that caused the granular textures that characterize the MES.[23] The weaker sedimentary layers were susceptible to erosion, and their products were deposited around their base. Consequently, the massif likely became exposed during the Paleogenic epoch (30 million years ago), known as the Benfica Complex.[23]

Climate and biome

High humidity and cooler temperatures are rather frequent in the mountains of Sintra

The Mediterranean climate, influenced by the Atlantic and characterized by moderate temperatures and wet winters, is typical of mainland Portugal. Although the climate in the area of Cabo da Roca is close to semi-arid, the Sintra Mountains are considered moderately humid: precipitation in the mountains is higher than in the surrounding areas. The position of the town in the natural landscape of the Sintra Mountains (consisting of an exuberant natural patrimony), is influenced by the existence of a micro-climate.[22][24] For different reasons (the climate here has been moderated by the Sintra Mountains; the fertility of the soils; and its relative proximity to the Tagus estuary) the region attracted considerable early settlement. Due to its micro-climate, a huge park has developed full of dense foliage with a rich botanical diversity.

The temperate climate and humidity resulting from proximity to the coast favour the growth of a rich mat of forest including Atlantic and Mediterranean species, marking the transition in Portugal from northern to southern vegetation. The Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) predominates over great expanses of the rocky heights and sheltered slopes. On moist shady slopes, normally facing north, or in sheltered places, the common oak (Quercus robur) is widespread. In lowland areas and warm places the cork oak (Quercus suber) is common and in limestone areas the Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea) is found. Other species scattered throughout the mountains of Sintra include: maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), common hazel (Corylus avellana), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), European holly (Ilex aquifolium), Portuguese laurel (Prunus lusitanica), Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), laurestine (Viburnum tinus), Kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), and Italian buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus). In the valleys, near watercourses, grow narrow-leaf ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), Grey willow (Salix atrocinerea), European alder (Alnus glutinosa), alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus) and black elderberry (Sambucus nigra).

Since 1966, the Sintra Mountains have been affected by fires that have destroyed a major part of the original forest, which has been substituted by acacia and other fast-growing exotic species. The forested area of the Sintra mountains is about 5,000 hectares (50 km2), of which 26% (1,300 hectares (13 km2)) is maintained by the State through the Direcção Geral de Florestas – Núcleo Florestal de Sintra (General Directorate of Forests – Sintra Forestry Service).

Climate data for Sintra (Sintra Air Base) 1971–2000

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Record high °C (°F)21.6

(70.9)23.4

(74.1)27.2

(81.0)28.0

(82.4)33.6

(92.5)41.4

(106.5)39.8

(103.6)38.5

(101.3)37.8

(100.0)31.8

(89.2)27.0

(80.6)22.5

(72.5)41.4

(106.5)

Mean daily maximum °C (°F)14.3

(57.7)14.9

(58.8)16.8

(62.2)17.4

(63.3)19.2

(66.6)22.3

(72.1)24.7

(76.5)25.3

(77.5)24.5

(76.1)21.1

(70.0)17.5

(63.5)15.1

(59.2)19.4

(66.9)

Daily mean °C (°F)9.7

(49.5)10.6

(51.1)12.0

(53.6)13.0

(55.4)14.9

(58.8)17.8

(64.0)20.0

(68.0)20.4

(68.7)19.4

(66.9)16.4

(61.5)13.0

(55.4)10.9

(51.6)14.9

(58.8)

Mean daily minimum °C (°F)5.2

(41.4)6.2

(43.2)7.3

(45.1)8.5

(47.3)10.6

(51.1)13.3

(55.9)15.2

(59.4)15.6

(60.1)14.3

(57.7)11.6

(52.9)8.6

(47.5)6.8

(44.2)10.3

(50.5)

Record low °C (°F)−3.5

(25.7)−3.5

(25.7)−2.0

(28.4)−0.1

(31.8)3.2

(37.8)6.0

(42.8)8.6

(47.5)8.4

(47.1)4.8

(40.6)−1.0

(30.2)−3.5

(25.7)−4.0

(24.8)−4.0

(24.8)

Average precipitation mm (inches)100.7

(3.96)90.7

(3.57)57.2

(2.25)72.3

(2.85)56.8

(2.24)18.2

(0.72)6.2

(0.24)6.9

(0.27)28.4

(1.12)91.0

(3.58)111.5

(4.39)127.8

(5.03)767.7

(30.22)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)14.314.511.213.110.56.13.63.16.811.913.916.0125.0

Average relative humidity (%)87858077757574747782848680

Mean monthly sunshine hours152.2149.5205.0224.0255.4269.7309.0307.3244.2203.5158.7128.52,607

Source: Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera[25][26]

Climate data for Sintra (Granja), altitude: 134 m (440 ft), 1961–1984 normals, 1953–2003 sun hours

Human geography

Historical population

YearPop.±%

186420,766—

187821,990+5.9%

189022,918+4.2%

190026,074+13.8%

191130,694+17.7%

192029,762−3.0%

193037,986+27.6%

194045,171+18.9%

195060,423+33.8%

196079,964+32.3%

1970124,893+56.2%

1981226,428+81.3%

1991260,951+15.2%

2001363,749+39.4%

2011377,835+3.9%

2021385,606+2.1%

Source: INE[27]

The municipality is administered by 11 civil parish (Portuguese: freguesias) councils, with local authority to administer services and provide local governance, which are:[28]

Agualva e Mira-Sintra

Algueirão–Mem Martins

Almargem do Bispo, Pêro Pinheiro e Montelavar

Cacém e São Marcos

Casal de Cambra

Colares

Massamá e Monte Abraão

Queluz e Belas

Rio de Mouro

São João das Lampas e Terrugem

Sintra (Santa Maria e São Miguel, São Martinho e São Pedro de Penaferrim)

Sintra also has numerous hamlets and villages, including the affluent village of Linhó, Sintra.

Sintra's population grew considerably in the late 20th century, rising from about 14% of the Lisbon region to 19%, with the main concentration of resident population found in the important Queluz-Portela corridor, along the southeast corner of the municipality.[29] In this area were concentrated approximately 82% of the municipality's population, the most attractive parishes to live in being São Pedro de Penaferrim, Rio de Mouro, Belas and Algueirão-Mem Martins.[29][30]

The buildings in the central square of São Martinho, across from the Sintra National Palace

With the decrease in mortality rates, the region has undergone a general increase in infant births, primarily associated with late births, but also an increase in seniors in the community (56.5% in 2001).[29] Yet Sintra is still considered to have a structurally young population, the youngest in the Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon.[29] Young adults (30- to 39-year-olds) dominate Sintra's communities, with the parishes of Pêro Pinheiro, Terrugem, São Martinho, São João das Lampas, Santa Maria e São Miguel, Montelavar, Colares, Queluz and Almargem do Bispo all having higher rates of seniors in the population.[29] Approximately 80% of the population are born outside the town, 21% of these being foreign born residents. While the resident population in Lisbon has seen a gentle decrease since the mid-1960s, Sintra has grown comparably.[29]

Urban areas represent 55.4 square kilometres (5,540 ha) of the municipality, or approximately 17.4% of Sintra's territory; 35% of the population reside in places of between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants.[29] Many of these areas are anchored to lines of access, in particular, the Sintra Line and the IC19 motorway which connects the principal towns of Queluz, Agualva-Cacém, Algueirão/Mem Martins, Rio de Mouro and Belas).[29] Many of these urban areas are composed of a fabric of building projects that have historically resulted in dense buildings of concrete, normally seven or more floors in height.[29] The greatest growth in residential homes has occurred in the south of the municipality, in the triangle of São Pedro de Penaferrim, Santa Maria e São Miguel and Casal de Cambra.[29] In addition, there is a major concentration and growth in family dwellings of a seasonal nature, or second homes, in this region, and a proliferation of illegal construction in the parishes of São João das Lampas, São Pedro de Penaferrim, Belas, Agualva-Cacém and Casal de Cambra.[29]

Economy

The iconic Pena National Palace originally built on the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena, and renovated extensively through the initiative of Ferdinand II of Portugal

The growth in tertiary activities has played an important part in the pattern of employment in the region, with commercial, retail and support services predominating.[29] This has been to the detriment of industry, although continuing industrial activities include the transport of materials, mineral processing, the manufacture of machinery and equipment, food-processing, beverage and tobacco companies as well as publishing and printing services.[29] There has also been a dramatic growth in the civil construction industry.[29]

EuroAtlantic Airways has its head office in Sintra.[31]

Tourism is also significant, with the parks and monuments operated by the Parques de Sintra accounting for 3.2 million visitors in 2017, for example.[32]

Transport

Sintra commuter railway station

Lisbon's commuter railway network (CP Urban Services) provides direct services to Sintra Station. The journey to Lisbon takes 35–45 minutes.[33] There is alternative transport, taxis, car-sharing services and buses, covering a large area of the district.

The Sintra tramway links Sintra with the Atlantic coast at Praia das Maçãs, providing a beautiful scenic ride along the way and covering a distance of some 11.5 kilometres (7.1 mi). As of 2016, the heritage line runs Wednesday to Sunday in summer months.

Tourist bus 434 takes visitors between attractions in Sintra. The bus follows a one-way route and stops at Sintra Station, São Pedro de Sintra, the Castle of the Moors, Pena National Palace, Sintra Old Town and returns to Sintra Station.[34]

Landmarks

Cultural Landscape of Sintra

UNESCO World Heritage Site

CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, v

Reference723

Inscription1995 (19th Session)

Area946 ha

Sintra has a great number of preserved or classified architectural buildings:

Prehistoric

Barreira Megalithic Complex

Dolmen of Adrenunes (Portuguese: Anta de Adrenunes)

Dolmen of Agualva (Portuguese: Anta de Agualva/Anta do Carrascal)

Dolmen of Estria (Portuguese: Anta da Estria)

Dolmen of Monte Abraão (Portuguese: Anta do Monte Abraão)

Praia das Maçãs Prehistoric Monument (Portuguese: Monumento Pré-Histórico de Praia das Maçãs)

Tholos tomb of Monge (Portuguese: Tholos do Monge)

RA-26639 Antonov An-26ASLK Geodynamics CPU AON by Chennell Productions

11

Moscow Bykovo 22.7.06

Nice to see my first An-26 again, I first saw this in Athens in 1984.

Mediterranean Sea from near Hergla, Tunisia - December 2013 by Saffy H

52 56

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a completely separate body of water.

The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in the middle of the land" (from medius, "middle" and terra, "land"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km (8.7 mi) wide. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea.

It was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.

Name

The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning "in the middle of earth" or "between lands" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a "middle, between" + terra f., "land, earth"): as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Greek name Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, "middle" + γη, "land, earth").[5]

The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example the Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, "Our Sea"), and occasionally Mare Internum (Sallust, Jug. 17).

In the Bible, it was primarily known as הים הגדול (HaYam HaGadol), the "Great Sea", (Num. 34:6,7; Josh. 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezek. 47:10,15,20), or simply "The Sea" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea", due to its location on the west coast of the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as "Western Sea", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines" (Exod. 23:31), from the people occupying a large portion of its shores near the Israelites.

In Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon (הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן), "the Middle Sea", reflecting the Sea's name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin (Mare internum) and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.). Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ (البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط), "the [White] Medium Sea", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as Baḥr al-Rūm (بحر الروم), or "the Roman/Byzantine Sea." In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz,[6] "the White Sea" since among Turks the white color (ak) represents the west.

History

Several ancient civilizations were located around its shores; thus it has had a major influence on those cultures. It provided routes for trade, colonization and war, and provided food (by fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.[7]

The sharing of similar climate, geology and access to a common sea led to numerous historical and cultural connections between the ancient and modern societies around the Mediterranean.

Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians. When[citation needed] Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Mediterranean Sea began to be called Mare Nostrum (literally:"Our Sea") by the Romans.

Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.[8]

The western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power soon arose in the east: Islam. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region.

Europe was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.

Ottoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza. The Battle of Djerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. However, as naval prowess of the European powers grew, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.

The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.[9] According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[10]

The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the east had passed through the region, but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed spices and other goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.[11][12][13] The Malta president described the Mediterranean sea as a "cemetery" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there.

Geography

With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.

The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km (101 mi) long man-made Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.

Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the eastern Mediterranean; Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the western Mediterranean.

The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[15]

Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the West to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the East, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins:

Western Basin:

On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).

On the northeast: The West Coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the North extreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with Cape Peloro, the East extreme of the Island of Sicily. The North Coast of Sicily.

On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the Western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).

Eastern Basin:

On the west: The Northeastern and Eastern limits of the Western Basin.

On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and Cape Helles, the Western entrance to the Dardanelles.

On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.

On the east: The coasts of Syria, Israel, Lebanon, and Gaza Strip.

Oceanography

Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterized and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.

Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin.[16] Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.[17] This pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar.[18] Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.

Coastal countries

Twenty-two countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea. They are:

Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.

Eastern shore (from north to south): Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Flag of Palestine.svg Palestine (limited recognition).

Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.

Island nations: Malta, Cyprus, Flag of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.svg Northern Cyprus (limited recognition).

Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, and the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus

Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:

CountryCities

AlbaniaDurrës

AlgeriaAlgiers, Annaba, Oran

CroatiaSplit, Rijeka

EgyptAlexandria, Port Said

FranceMarseille, Nice

GreeceAthens, Patras, Thessaloniki

IsraelAshdod, Haifa, Tel Aviv

ItalyBari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Taranto, Trieste, Venice

LebanonBeirut, Tripoli

LibyaBenghazi, Khoms, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten

MoroccoTétouan, Tangier

SpainAlicante, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma, Valencia

State of PalestineGaza City

SyriaLatakia

TunisiaBizerte, Sfax, Tunis

TurkeyAntalya, İskenderun, İzmir, Mersin

Subdivisions

According to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):[15]

the Strait of Gibraltar;

the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;

the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands;

the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);

the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily;

the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;

the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;

the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.

Other seas

Although not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:

the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea

the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,

the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,

In the Aegean Sea,

the Thracian Sea in its north,

the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese,

the Sea of Crete north of Crete,

the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios

the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus

the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean

Other features

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:

the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon

the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria

the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.

the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria

the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco

the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula

the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal

the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula

the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea

the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia

the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia

the Gulf of Lion, south of France

the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain

the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy

the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy

the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy

the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy

the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy

The Adriatic Sea contains over 1200 islands and islets.

the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy

the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy

the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy

the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania

the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel

the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)

the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia

the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy

the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica

the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)

the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)

the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia

the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta

the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

Sea temperature

Mean sea temperature (°C)

JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecØ/Year

Marseille[21]13131314161821222118161416.6

Venice[22]11101113182225262320161417.4

Barcelona[23]13131314172023252320171517.8

Valencia[24]14131415172124262421181518.5

Málaga[25]16151516172022232220181618.3

Gibraltar[26]16151616172022222220181718.4

Naples[27]15141415182225272522191619.3

Athens[28]16151516182124242421191819.3

Heraklion[29]16151516192224252422201819.7

Malta[30]16161516182124262523211819.9

Larnaca[31]18171718202426272725221921.7

Limassol[32]18171718202426272725221921.7

Antalya17171718212427282725221921.8

Alexandria[33]18171718202325262625222021.4

Tel Aviv[34]18171718212426282726232022.1

Geology

The geologic history of the Mediterranean is complex. It was involved in the tectonic break-up and then collision of the African and Eurasian plates. The Messinian Salinity Crisis occurred in the late Miocene (12 million years ago to 5 million years ago) when the Mediterranean dried up. Geologically the Mediterranean is underlain by oceanic crust.

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions (which in turn are divided into subdivisions), the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Western Mediterranean covers an area of about 0.85 million km² (0.33 million mi²) and the Eastern Mediterranean about 1.65 million km² (0.64 million mi²). A characteristic of the Mediterranean Sea are submarine karst springs or vruljas, which mainly occur in shallow waters[35] and may also be thermal.

Tectonic evolution

The geodynamic evolution of the Mediterranean Sea was provided by the convergence of European and African plates and several smaller microplates. This process was driven by the differential seafloor spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which led to the closure of the Tethys Ocean and eventually to the Alpine orogenesis. However, the Mediterranean also hosts wide extensional basins and migrating tectonic arcs, in response to its land-locked configuration.

According to a report published by Nature in 2009, some scientists think that the Mediterranean Sea was mostly filled during a time period of less than two years, in a major flood (the Zanclean flood) that happened approximately 5.33 million years ago, in which water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean and through the Strait of Gibraltar, at a rate three times the current flow of the Amazon River.[37] However, the sea basins had been filled for many millions of years before the prior closure of the Strait of Gibraltar.

Eastern Mediterranean

In middle Miocene times, the collision between the Arabian microplate and Eurasia led to the separation between the Tethys and the Indian oceans. This process resulted in profound changes in the oceanic circulation patterns, which shifted global climates towards colder conditions. The Hellenic arc, which has a land-locked configuration, underwent a widespread extension for the last 20 Ma due to a slab roll-back process. In addition, the Hellenic Arc experienced a rapid rotation phase during the Pleistocene, with a counterclockwise component in its eastern portion and a clockwise trend in the western segment.

Central Mediterranean

The opening of small oceanic basins of the central Mediterranean follows a trench migration and back-arc opening process that occurred during the last 30 Myr. This phase was characterised by the anticlockwise rotation of the Corsica-Sardinia block, which lasted until the Langhian (ca.16 Ma), and was in turn followed by a slab detachment along the northern African margin. Subsequently, a shift of this active extensional deformation led to the opening of the Tyrrenian basin.

Western Mediterranean[edit]

The Betic-Rif mountain belts developed during Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as Africa and Iberia converged. Tectonic models for its evolution include: rapid motion of Alboran Domain, subduction zone and radial extensional collapse caused by convective removal of lithospheric mantle. The development of these intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to the onset of two marine gateways which were progressively closed during the late Miocene by an interplay of tectonic and glacio-eustatic processes.

Paleoenvironmental analysis

Its semi-enclosed configuration makes the oceanic gateways critical in controlling circulation and environmental evolution in the Mediterranean Sea. Water circulation patterns are driven by a number of interactive factors, such as climate and bathymetry, which can lead to precipitation of evaporites. During late Miocene times, a so-called "Messinian Salinity Crisis" (MSC hereafter) occurred, where the Mediterranean entirely or almost entirely dried out, which was triggered by the closure of the Atlantic gateway. Evaporites accumulated in the Red Sea Basin (late Miocene), in the Carpatian foredeep (middle Miocene) and in the whole Mediterranean area (Messinian). An accurate age estimate of the MSC—5.96 Ma—has recently been astronomically achieved; furthermore, this event seems to have occurred synchronously. The beginning of the MSC is supposed to have been of tectonic origin; however, an astronomical control (eccentricity) might also have been involved. In the Mediterranean basin, diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, thus suggesting (albeit not clearly so far) a connection between their geneses.

The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, finds its origin in the early Pliocene. However, two other connections between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea existed in the past: the Betic Corridor (southern Spain) and the Rifian Corridor (northern Morocco). The former closed during Tortonian times, thus providing a "Tortonian Salinity Crisis" well before the MSC; the latter closed about 6 Ma, allowing exchanges in the mammal fauna between Africa and Europe. Nowadays, evaporation is more relevant than the water yield supplied by riverine water and precipitation, so that salinity in the Mediterranean is higher than in the Atlantic. These conditions result in the outflow of warm saline Mediterranean deep water across Gibraltar, which is in turn counterbalanced by an inflow of a less saline surface current of cold oceanic water.

The Mediterranean was once thought to be the remnant of the Tethys Ocean. It is now known to be a structurally younger ocean basin known as Neotethys. The Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic rifting of the African and Eurasian plates.

Paleoclimate

Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past Geomagnetic Reversals.[38] Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records have improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.

Ecology and biota

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[39] the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.

The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of Bottlenose Dolphins in the western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for Loggerhead Sea Turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals.

Environmental threats

Biodiversity

Invasive species

The Reticulate whipray is one of the species that colonised the eastern Mediterranean through the Suez Canal.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalized with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin,[40] introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of "alien" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a "familiar sight".

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.

Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by Global Warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the "lessepsian" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.

Sea-level rise

By 2100, the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result of the effects of climate change.[42] This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:

Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.[43]

A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[44]

Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.[45] Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05-0.1°C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.

Pollution

Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years.[when?] The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[47] The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'[48] Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean Monk Seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.[49]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km². Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.

Shipping

Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.

The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives seventeen percent of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000 long tons) of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.

Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 oil tankers crossing the Sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.

Tourism

With a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and diverse culture the Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists.

Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries. It also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centres. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.

Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit

Overfishing

Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that over 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.[date missing]

There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.

Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.

Aquacultur

Aquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish.

Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning.

Mediterranean Sea at Sousse, Tunisia - December 2013 by Saffy H

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