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Manihot Ethnobotany
Food
Manihot esculenta produces the 3rd most important carbohydrate group in the world after only rice and maize. It is a main dietary component for over 500 million people, mainly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The starch filled roots are highly nutritious and are commonly used to combat malnourishment as they have an extremely high concentration of vitamins and minerals. However, the roots contain cyanogenic glucosides and must be carefully processed to be edible.
There are two varieties of cassava cultivated for consumption---‘yuca dolce’ and ‘yuca braval’. Yuca braval or bitter cassava contains higher amounts of cyanogenic glucosides and is mainly used for starch production. Yuca dolce or sweet cassava also contains cyanogenic glucosides, but in smaller amounts. Unlike bitter cassava, sweet cassava does not require processing to become edible---it is simply cooked to eliminate its toxicity. Sweet cassava is typically consumed as a vegetable.
Cassava is mostly harvested by hand to completely pull the roots out of the ground. The roots are extremely perishable and will deteriorate after just a few days. Typically, most of the stem and leaves have been removed before it is time to harvest to prolong the self-life. There are methods, such as freezing and coating the roots in wax, that are commercially used to preserve cassava before it is processed. Traditional methods of preparation differ around the world and there is even more variety in preparation depending on what product is being made. However, one thing is consistent across the board: cassava must be peeled. The highest concentrations of cyanogenic glucosides are in the root skin. Therefore, all cassava must be peeled before it can be used. The specific cyanogenic glucosides in cassava are linamarin and lotaustralin. When ingested, they are acted upon by the naturally occurring linamarase enzyme that is also present in cassava. Linamarase liberates the cyanogenic glucosides thus producing poisonous hydrogen cyanide (HCN). To eliminate those toxins, peeled cassava needs to be carefully dried, boiled, roasted, fermented, squeezed, soaked, sifted, grated, toasted, ground, pressed or a combination of any of the above before cassava can be consumed.
After the roots are processed, yuca can be cooked and eaten as vegetable, or refined into granules, pasta, flour, thickening agents, or starch to make other food products. Cassava meal is commonly referred to as ‘farinha’ in Brazil. Tapioca, a popular culinary thickening agent, is produced from cassava root starch. Fermented cassava is used to make alcoholic beverages such as ‘mazatto’ and ‘beshu’ in South America. Cassava leaves also have some culinary use. In the State of Pará, Brazil, Maniçoba is a festive dish eaten during Círio de Nazaré that is made with finely ground cassava leaves. The leaves, called ‘maniva’ in Portuguese, are boiled for at least four days to remove all the toxins. Salted pork, dried meat, and other smoked ingredients are added and served over rice and farinha.
Archaeological evidence shows that cassava was first cultivated as crop in Peru approximately 4,000 years ago then later in Mexico approximately 2,000 years ago. Cassava spread to Africa in the 16th century during the slave trade as it was often stored as food for long voyages. Africa is now the largest center for manioc production. Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil are the top commercial producers in the world. In 2010, the global production was close to 228 million metric tons.
Medicine
Cassava is typically employed to combat malnourishment due to its nutritive value. In Brazil, it is commonly used to treat the results of eating disorders such as anorexia. Cassava is not only nourishing, but also increases appetite. In Venezuela, the freshly crushed tuber is used to treat stomach ailments. In Colombia, the dried leaves are combined with Tabernaemontana undulata to make a tea used to help expel parasites and worms. The Wayâpi people of Brazil use the leaves in a poultice as a remedy for arrow wounds. The Palikir people of Brazil also make a poultice from the leaves, but use it for tender muscles. In Trinidad, the raw tuber is commonly used for treating snake bites and the fresh leaves are placed on the forehead to soothe headaches. Manihot species are being investigated in recent years for their possible antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, anti-parasitic, and amoebicidal properties.
Tools
Cassava has been traditionally used by many groups of indigenous people across Latin America as a fish poison. It is also commonly used as animal feed. Cassava has some promising uses for the future as well. Cassava can be used as source of ethanol in biofuel production and has compared favorably in comparison to other biofuel crops such as maize, sugarcane, and sorghum. Cassava is the cheapest source of carbon in biodegradable plastics.
Manihot Ethnobotany
Food
Manihot esculenta produces the 3rd most important carbohydrate group in the world after only rice and maize. It is a main dietary component for over 500 million people, mainly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The starch filled roots are highly nutritious and are commonly used to combat malnourishment as they have an extremely high concentration of vitamins and minerals. However, the roots contain cyanogenic glucosides and must be carefully processed to be edible.
There are two varieties of cassava cultivated for consumption---‘yuca dolce’ and ‘yuca braval’. Yuca braval or bitter cassava contains higher amounts of cyanogenic glucosides and is mainly used for starch production. Yuca dolce or sweet cassava also contains cyanogenic glucosides, but in smaller amounts. Unlike bitter cassava, sweet cassava does not require processing to become edible---it is simply cooked to eliminate its toxicity. Sweet cassava is typically consumed as a vegetable.
Cassava is mostly harvested by hand to completely pull the roots out of the ground. The roots are extremely perishable and will deteriorate after just a few days. Typically, most of the stem and leaves have been removed before it is time to harvest to prolong the self-life. There are methods, such as freezing and coating the roots in wax, that are commercially used to preserve cassava before it is processed. Traditional methods of preparation differ around the world and there is even more variety in preparation depending on what product is being made. However, one thing is consistent across the board: cassava must be peeled. The highest concentrations of cyanogenic glucosides are in the root skin. Therefore, all cassava must be peeled before it can be used. The specific cyanogenic glucosides in cassava are linamarin and lotaustralin. When ingested, they are acted upon by the naturally occurring linamarase enzyme that is also present in cassava. Linamarase liberates the cyanogenic glucosides thus producing poisonous hydrogen cyanide (HCN). To eliminate those toxins, peeled cassava needs to be carefully dried, boiled, roasted, fermented, squeezed, soaked, sifted, grated, toasted, ground, pressed or a combination of any of the above before cassava can be consumed.
After the roots are processed, yuca can be cooked and eaten as vegetable, or refined into granules, pasta, flour, thickening agents, or starch to make other food products. Cassava meal is commonly referred to as ‘farinha’ in Brazil. Tapioca, a popular culinary thickening agent, is produced from cassava root starch. Fermented cassava is used to make alcoholic beverages such as ‘mazatto’ and ‘beshu’ in South America. Cassava leaves also have some culinary use. In the State of Pará, Brazil, Maniçoba is a festive dish eaten during Círio de Nazaré that is made with finely ground cassava leaves. The leaves, called ‘maniva’ in Portuguese, are boiled for at least four days to remove all the toxins. Salted pork, dried meat, and other smoked ingredients are added and served over rice and farinha.
Archaeological evidence shows that cassava was first cultivated as crop in Peru approximately 4,000 years ago then later in Mexico approximately 2,000 years ago. Cassava spread to Africa in the 16th century during the slave trade as it was often stored as food for long voyages. Africa is now the largest center for manioc production. Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil are the top commercial producers in the world. In 2010, the global production was close to 228 million metric tons.
Medicine
Cassava is typically employed to combat malnourishment due to its nutritive value. In Brazil, it is commonly used to treat the results of eating disorders such as anorexia. Cassava is not only nourishing, but also increases appetite. In Venezuela, the freshly crushed tuber is used to treat stomach ailments. In Colombia, the dried leaves are combined with Tabernaemontana undulata to make a tea used to help expel parasites and worms. The Wayâpi people of Brazil use the leaves in a poultice as a remedy for arrow wounds. The Palikir people of Brazil also make a poultice from the leaves, but use it for tender muscles. In Trinidad, the raw tuber is commonly used for treating snake bites and the fresh leaves are placed on the forehead to soothe headaches. Manihot species are being investigated in recent years for their possible antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, anti-parasitic, and amoebicidal properties.
Tools
Cassava has been traditionally used by many groups of indigenous people across Latin America as a fish poison. It is also commonly used as animal feed. Cassava has some promising uses for the future as well. Cassava can be used as source of ethanol in biofuel production and has compared favorably in comparison to other biofuel crops such as maize, sugarcane, and sorghum. Cassava is the cheapest source of carbon in biodegradable plastics.