As strength of winds increased, the tether snapped

freeing the balloon to the open air. It maintained

velocity before reaching land, where it touched tree

tops but did not snag, inertia and momentary

radiative gains pushing it forward again over water.

 

A collaboration between Tomás Saraceno, Visiting Artist at MIT’s Center for Art, Science & Technology and Lodovica Illari of MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Aerocene invites us to think of new ways to sense the circulation of energy and resources, towards a new thermodynamic imaginary, actively reframing the material ethics and politics of our contemporary modes of moving, dwelling, and being-together, here on Earth. It pursues the vision of Cloud Cities, previous undertaking of Saraceno. For COP21 Paris, the artist will present Aerocene in an outstanding sculptural installation at Grand Palais. At Palais de Tokyo, a symposium will be organized, and a series of actions and collective performances, based on open-source collaborative principles, will take place in various locations.

 

Expedition participants included Tomás Saraceno, Francesca von Habsburg, Markus Reymann (TBA21), Juan Enriquez (noted author), Bill Mckenna (MIT), and Nicholas Shapiro (Pacific Lab), alongside the community from Kukudo (sp) in the Solomon Islands. Just after sunrise, Saraceno launched the first test of Aerocene off the Dardenella and then followed the floating structure in a wood canoe as it floated up powered only by the heat of the Sun.

 

Learn more at arts.mit.edu

 

Photo by ©Tomás Saraceno

eapsweb.mit.edu

Please ask before use

Center Healthy and balanced Diet Idea

 

Weight control and regular physical exercise are actually vital for maintaining your heart in shape-- yet the food items you eat might matter equally very much. A heart-healthy nutrition can lower your threat of heart problem or stroke by 80 %. By recognizing which foods items together with the techniques of cooking are actually healthiest for your center, you might be actually capable to prevent or handle cardiovascular disease and hypertension, and take higher management over the top quality as well as length of your lifestyle.

In This Write-up:.

 

You can easily protect against cardiovascular disease.

Minimize out filled and also trans fats.

Choose foods items that decrease cholesterol levels.

Avoid salt and also processed foods.

Rekindle residence food preparation.

Focus on high-fiber foods items.

Control section measurements-- and also your weight.

 

Print this! Ordinary Text SizeLarger Content SizeLargest Words Measurements.

You can easily go through measures to avoid center illness.

 

Heart problem might be actually the leading great of guys and also ladies, however that doesn't imply you can not defend on your own. Aside from exercise, being actually careful pertaining to just what you consume-- as well as just what you do not eat-- can assist you reduced blood cholesterol, control blood tension and blood glucose degrees, together with the sustain a healthy mass. If you've presently been actually recognized using heart problem or perhaps have high cholesterol levels or blood stress, a heart-smart diet plan can aid you much better take care of these disorders, lowering your hazard for heart attack.

 

Improving your eating plan is a significant action towards avoiding cardiovascular disease, however you may sense uncertain where to start. Enjoy an appearance at the large photo: your total consuming designs are more vital compared to consuming over one-on-one foods. No single food items could make you amazingly healthy and balanced, therefore your goal could be to combine a selection of well-balanced foods items cooked in healthy and balanced techniques in to your nutrition, together with the create these routines your new lifestyle.

Consume Far more.

 

Consume Much less.

 

Well-balanced fatty tissues: raw nuts, tawny oil, fish oils, flax seeds, or perhaps avocados.

 

Trans fatty tissues from somewhat hydrogenated or deep-fried foods; filled fatty tissues through whole-fat dairy products or reddish meat.

 

Nutrients: vibrant fruits as well as vegetables-- fresh or perhaps frozen, well prepared without butter.

 

Packaged foods of any kind, primarily those extreme in salt.

 

Nutrient: grains, breadstuffs, and also pasta created from whole pellets or vegetables.

 

White or even egg cell breads, granola-type cereals, fine-tuned pastas or even rice.

 

Omega 3 together with the protein: fish together with the seafood, poultry.

 

Reddish food, bacon, sausage, seared chicken.

 

Calcium mineral together with the healthy protein: Egg whites, egg cell replacements, skim or perhaps 1 % milk, nonfat or perhaps low-fat cheeses or even yogurt.

 

Egg cell yolk sacs, whole or 2 percent milk, entire milk goods like cheese or natural yogurt.

Heart healthy and balanced diet regimen tips: Reduce saturated and trans fats.

 

Of all the achievable improvements you could make to your eating plan, confining saturated fatty tissues and removing trans fatty tissues entirely is actually perhaps the best significant. Both kinds of fatty tissue raise your LDL, or perhaps "bad" blood cholesterol degree, which can raise your hazard for cardiovascular disease and stroke. The good news is, there are actually several techniques to regulate how very much filled and also trans fatty tissues you consume. Try to keep these causes in mind since you create and prepare meals options-- and also find out tips on how to avoid all of them.

 

Reduce the volume of strong fatty tissues like butter, margarine, or reducing you incorporate to food items when food preparation or serving. You can additionally restrict strong fatty tissue by trimming down fatty tissue off your meat or even selecting leaner proteins.

Swap out high-fat meals for their lower-fat counterparts. Top your baked potato, for example, using salsa or perhaps low-fat yogurt somewhat compared to butter, or utilize low-sugar fruit array on your toast rather of margarine.

Be actually label-savvy. Inspect food items marks on any sort of prepared foods. Many snacks, perhaps even those labeled "minimized fat," might be actually made along with oils containing trans fatty tissues. One clue that a food gets some trans fatty tissue is the expression "somewhat hydrogenated." As well as appear for hidden fat; refried beans might include lard, or perhaps breakfast cereals could possess substantial volumes of fat.

Replace your practices. The most effective method to steer clear of filled or trans fats is actually to modify your way of living strategies. Rather than flakes, snack on fruit or vegetables. Difficulty your own self to prepare along with a limited amount of butter. At restaurants, ask that dressings or even dressings be applied the side-- or ended altogether.

 

Not all fats misbehave for your heart.

 

While filled and trans fats are actually obstructions to a healthy soul, unsaturated fats are actually essential permanently health. You simply need to recognize the difference. "Great" fats consist of:.

 

Omega 3 Fatty Acids. Greasy fish like fish, trout, or even herring together with the flax seed, canola oil, and also walnuts all contain polyunsaturated fats that are crucial for the physical body.

Omega 6 Fatty Acids. Vegetable oils, soy nuts, together with the several sorts of seeds all contain healthy fatty tissues.

Monounsaturated fatty tissues. Almonds, cashews, peanuts, pecans, as well as butters made because of these nuts, in addition to avocadoes, are all wonderful origins of "excellent" fatty tissue.

 

Heart well-balanced diet plan pointers: Decide on foods items that decrease cholesterol.

 

Unwell cholesterol levels boost your danger for heart problem, so always keeping yours reduced is crucial to a healthier core. Your eating plan is main to managing your cholesterol. Some meals can in fact lower your cholesterol levels, while others simply create matters worse.

 

Foods having high levels of saturated fats or trans fats-- such as spud chips together with the packaged cookies-- can easily increase your cholesterol levels a lot a lot more drastically compared to blood cholesterol- having foods such since eggs. Filled fat together with the trans fat each rise LDL ("poor") blood cholesterol.

Pick meals rich in unsaturated fatty tissues, fiber, and healthy protein. The best foods for reducing cholesterol levels are actually slow cooked oatmeal, fish, walnuts (and additional nuts), olive oil, as well as foods fortified along with sterols or even stanols-- materials located in plants that assist block the absorption of cholesterol.

Bear in mind that labels could be deceiving. Browsing meals tags could frequently be actually complexed because packaged foods with marks like "cholesterol levels free" or even "reasonable cholesterol" typically aren't always heart-healthy; they might perhaps even have cholesterol that's heart-risky. Stick to nitty-gritties whenever achievable: fruit, veggies, nuts, and lean healthy proteins.

 

Reducing your cholesterol along with fish or perhaps fish oil supplements.

 

By incorporating fish like or herring to your diet regimen two times a full week, you could substantially reduce your blood cholesterol, together with the thereby your threat for cardiovascular system attack. Fish contain omega-3 fatty acids, which operate like superheroes, performing great acts for your heart-- and your entire body.

Cardiovascular system well-balanced diet regimen ideas: Stay away from salt and processed foods items.

 

Minimizing the salt in your food is a big component of a heart-healthy diet. The American Cardiovascular system Organization highly recommends no even more than concerning a teaspoon of salt a time for a grownup.

 

Lessen tinned or procedured foods. Much of the sodium you consume comes through tinned or processed foods items like soups or frozen suppers-- also chicken or even various meats usually have actually sodium incorporated during the course of processing. Consuming fresh foods, trying to find unsalted foods, and also making your personal soups or even soups could greatly lessen your sodium intake.

Chef at house, utilizing seasonings for flavor. Make usage of the a lot of tasty choices to salt.

Substitute lowered salt models, or even sodium alternatives. Choose your dressings as well as packaged foods carefully, searching for meals tagged sodium free of cost, reduced salt, or even saltless. Better yet, make use of wholesome ingredients and also prepare without salt.

 

The SPRINKLE eating plan for decreasing blood tension.

 

The Dietary Approaches to Quit Hypertension, or even DASH diet regimen, is actually a particularly fashioned eating program to help you lower your blood pressure, which is actually a major root cause of hypertension and also stroke. To learn far more, download the pamphlet through the National Heart, Breathing, and Blood Principle discovered in the Funds as well as References section beneath.

Cardiovascular system healthy and balanced diet regimen suggestions: Revive home food preparation.

 

It's very challenging to eat right for your heart when you're eating out a great deal, purchasing in, or consuming microwave dinners and also other procedured foods. Fortunately is that you could learn to create quick, core meals in your home. This's much easier and much less taxing than you might think.

Heart-healthy grocery store buying and also keeping.

 

Developing a heart-friendly nutrition begins along with equipping your fridge along with healthy and balanced together with the obtainable foods items. Prep a list before you go to the outlet or even agriculturalist's market, together with the leave a little precious time after your vacation to establish on your own game success during the full week.

Check out marks.

 

While scanning the aisles of a supermarket in the UNITED STATE, search for foods items featuring the American Soul Association's heart-check scar to find heart-healthy foods. This company logo signifies that the food items has actually been accredited to fulfill the United states Soul Association's criteria for saturated fatty tissue together with the blood cholesterol. In Australia, seek the Center Foundation Tick.

 

American Center Affiliation.

 

United states Center Affiliation.

 

Australian Soul Groundwork.

 

Australian Soul Foundation.

 

Make well-balanced substitutions. Decide on substitutions like 1 % or even shaved milk rather of entire milk, limp margarine for butter, and also lean foods like chick together with the fish in area of ribs or area food. These replacements can easily conserve you a whole day's well worth of saturated fat.

Make foods items ready-to-eat. You are actually even more probably to remain heart-healthy when you make healthy meals simple to get hold of throughout your swamped week. When you come residence through grocery buying, cut up vegetables and also fruits and save all of them in the refrigerator, ready for the upcoming food or perhaps when you are seeking a ready-to-eat treat.

Usage your refrigerator. Make healthy and balanced consuming simpler by cold heart-healthy meals in various sections. Freeze fruits for example, bananas, grapes, as well as orange slices to make all of them more fun to eat for little ones. Beware using part dimensions: the highly recommended providing of prepared food is regarding the size of a deck of cards, while an offering of noodles needs to be actually regarding the dimension of a ball.

 

Heart-healthy food preparation recommendations.

Healthy and balanced Recipes Could Save Funds.

 

When you prep and prepare meals in your home, you get far better management over the dietary content and also the overall healthfulness of the meals you eat. An extrad bonus offer: you can easily additionally save funds.

 

Produce a public library of heart-healthy dishes. Stockpile on heart-healthy recipe books and also formulas for food preparation concepts. The web is actually complete of food blogs together with the websites alloted to well-balanced cooking methods as well as formulas, as well as a community library may be an excellent origin for recipe books.

Use heart-healthy cooking methods. Equally as vital as deciding on healthy meals at the food store is actually how you cook those foods items into healthy foods. Make use of low-fat procedures: you can easily cook, broil, microwave, roast, heavy steam, poach, softly rouse fry, or even sauté-- utilizing a percentage of veggie or even tawny oil, minimized salt broth, together with the spices.

Prepare merely twice a week and also make food for the entire week. When you're cooking healthful foods, produce extra assistings. Store since meals in multiple-use vessels-- or straight on plates-- for uncomplicated reheating and ready-to-eat food the rest of the full week. Cooking well-balanced food ahead through this is maybe the best convenient, money-saving, and also heart-saving approach accessible.

 

Heart well-balanced eating plan tips: Concentrate on high-fiber foods items.

 

A diet regimen high in fiber can reduce "poor" cholesterol and also give nutrients that can assist guard from heart disease. Through filling out on entire grains, veggies, as well as fruits, you can easily establish most of the nutrient you'll require, which indicates you'll also be reducing your danger of cardiovascular disease.

Choose entire grains.

 

Processed or perhaps procedured foods are actually lesser in nutrient information, therefore create whole grains an integral aspect of your diet regimen. There are several straightforward techniques to add whole grains to your foods.

 

Breakfast more efficiently. For breakfast pick a high-fiber breakfast grain-- one along with 5 or even more grams of nutrient each offering. Or incorporate a handful of tablespoons of unrefined wheat or grain bran to your beloved grain.

Attempt a brand-new grain. Tryout along with wild rice, wild rice, barley, whole-wheat noodles, and also bulgur. These alternatives are greater in fiber than their additional mainstream counterparts-- together with the you could discover you love their preferences.

Majority your baking. When baking in the house, alternative whole-grain flour for fifty percent or even all of the white flour, given that whole-grain flour is heavier than white colored flour. In yeast breadstuffs, use a little bit far more yeast or even let the dough growth longer. Try including crushed wheat bran grain or even unrefined grain bran to buns, cakes, together with the desserts.

Extra flaxseed. Flaxseeds are actually minor brownish seeds that are high in fiber and also omega-3 fatty acids, which may lower your absolute blood cholesterol. You may grind the seeds in a coffee mill or mixer and stir a tsp of all of them in to yogurt, applesauce, or perhaps in demand cereal.

 

Eat a variety of vegetables and fruits.

 

Many vegetables together with the fruits are reduced in gram calories as well as higher in fiber, making all of them center healthy. You can easily utilize several of the observing methods to create consuming fruits together with the veggies aspect of your diet daily.

 

Try to keep fruit and veggies at your fingertips. Cleaning as well as slashed fruit and veggies and also place them in your refrigerator for healthy and also speedy snacks. Select recipes that feature these high-fiber elements, like veggie stir-fries or fruit salad.

Integrate veggies into your food preparation. Include pre-cut fresh or even frozen veggies to sauces and also soups. Mix cut frosted broccoli into prepared pastas sauce or even toss fresh infant carrots into mishmashes.

Consume more peas, beans, together with the lentils. Extra renal grains to prerecorded soup or even a green salad.

Make snacks count. Wholesome as well as dried fruit, raw vegetables, and also whole-grain crackers are all excellent ways to incorporate fiber at snack precious time. A random handful of nuts is additionally a well-balanced, high-fiber treat.

 

Center healthy diet recommendations: Control section size-- and your mass.

 

Gaining or perhaps bring excess weight means that your heart ought to work harder, and this commonly leads to high blood stress-- a significant source of center illness. Reaching a healthy body mass is actually vital to lowering your hazard of heart disease.

 

Understand serving dimensions. An offering dimension is actually a particular amount of food, specified by typical measurements like mugs, ounces, or perhaps pieces-- as well as a well-balanced offering dimension could be actually a lot more compact compared to you're made use of to. The encouraged offering size for noodles is 1/2 cup, while an offering of meat, chick, or even fish is actually 2 to 3 ozs (57-85 grams). Judging providing dimension is actually a found out skill-set, therefore you might must make use of gauging cups, spoons, as well as a food items size to assist.

Eyeball this. The moment you have a far better concept of exactly what an offering must be, you may predict your portion. You can easily make use of popular things for recommendation; as an example, an offering of pasta ought to be regarding the dimension of a ball (a little smaller than a cricket ball), while an offering of meat, fish, or chick has to do with the size as well as density of a deck of playing cards.

Be cautious of dining establishment portions. Portions provided in restaurants are commonly greater than anyone necessities. Crack an entrée with your eating buddy, or perhaps have half your meal home for tomorrow's lunch.

 

No solitary food may make you like magic healthy, therefore your target may be to incorporate a variety of healthy and balanced foods cooked in well-balanced means in to your diet regimen, and create these practices your fresh lifestyle.

The best meals for lowering blood cholesterol are oat meal, fish, pines (and also additional nuts), tawny oil, and meals reinforced along with sterols or stanols-- compounds located in flowers that help obstruct the absorption of blood cholesterol.

Browsing food items labels may often be actually complicated because packaged meals along with labels like "blood cholesterol free of charge" or perhaps "reasonable cholesterol levels" may not be automatically heart-healthy; they might perhaps even consist of cholesterol levels that is actually heart-risky. While browsing the alleys of a grocery shop in the U.S., appeal for foods items presenting the United states Soul Organization's heart-check scar to detect heart-healthy meals. Only as important since picking healthy and balanced foods items at the grocery store is just how you prepare those foods items into well-balanced meals.

#TrainJourneyvlog

WAG-9 Livered BEML Built 8 Wheeled OHE Maintainence Van.

Onboard 12163 Dadar Central - Chennai Egmore S.F. Express.

...Maintainer Frappier needs someone to go past as close to track speed as possible to test a repair, can you help out? Do what you can.

 

With 3 motors and 169 cars heading towards Stevens Point that fix got a good test.

Minolta AF-C, 35mm f/2.8, Kodak Tri-x 400, (200) Spur Acurol N, 20 Celsius degrees, 14 min.

The University of Arizona (also referred to as UA, U of A, or Arizona) is a land-grant and space-grant public institution of higher education and research located in Tucson, Arizona, United States. The University of Arizona was the first university in the state of Arizona, founded in 1885 (twenty-seven years before the Arizona Territory achieved statehood), and is considered a Public Ivy. UA includes the only medical school in Arizona that grants M.D. degrees. In 2006, total enrollment was 36,805 students. UA is governed by the Arizona Board of Regents.

 

The University of Arizona was approved by the Arizona Territory''''''''''''''''s Thieving Thirteenth Legislature in 1885. The city of Tucson had hoped to receive the appropriation for the territory''''''''''''''''s mental hospital, which carried a $100,000 allocation instead of the $25,000 allotted to the territory''''''''''''''''s only university (Arizona State University was also chartered in 1885, but at the time it was created as Arizona''''''''''''''''s normal school, and not a university). Tucson''''''''''''''''s contingent of legislators was delayed in reaching Prescott due to flooding on the Salt River and by the time they arrived back-room deals allocating the most desirable territorial institutions had already been made. Tucson was largely disappointed at receiving what was viewed as an inferior prize. With no parties willing to step forth and provide land for the new institution, the citizens of Tucson prepared to return the money to the Territorial Legislature until two gamblers and a saloon keeper decided to donate the land necessary to build the school. Classes met for the first time in 1891 with 32 students in Old Main, the first building constructed on campus, and still in use to this day.[2]

 

Because there were no high schools in Arizona Territory, the University maintained separate preparatory classes for the first 23 years of operation.

 

The main campus sits on 380 acres (1.5 km2) in central Tucson, about one mile (1.6 km) northeast of downtown. There are 179 buildings on the main campus. Many of the early buildings, including the Arizona State Museum buildings (one of them the 1927 main library) and Centennial Hall, were designed by Roy Place, a prominent Tucson architect. It was Place''''''''''''''''s use of red brick that set the tone for the red brick facades that are a basic and ubiquitous part of nearly all UA buildings, even those built in recent decades. Indeed, almost every UA building has red brick as a major component of the design, or at the very least, a stylistic accent to harmonize it with the other buildings on campus. [3][4]

 

The campus is roughly divided into quadrants. The north and south sides of campus are delineated by a grassy expanse called the Mall, which stretches from Old Main eastward to the campus'''''''''''''''' eastern border at Campbell Avenue (a major north-south arterial street). The west and east sides of campus are separated roughly by Highland Avenue and the Student Union Memorial Center (see below).

 

The science and mathematics buildings tend to be clustered in the southwest quadrant; the intercollegiate athletics facilities to the southeast; the arts and humanities buildings to the northwest (with the dance department being a major exception as its main facilities are far to the east end of campus), with the engineering buildings in the north central area. The optical and space sciences buildings are clustered on the east side of campus near the sports stadiums and the (1976) main library.

 

Speedway Boulevard, one of Tucson''''''''''''''''s primary east-west arterial streets, traditionally defined the northern boundary of campus but since the 1980s, several university buildings have been constructed north of this street, expanding into a neighborhood traditionally filled with apartment complexes and single-family homes. The University has purchased a handful of these apartment complexes for student housing in recent years. Sixth Street typically defines the southern boundary, with single-family homes (many of which are rented out to students) south of this street.

 

Park Avenue has traditionally defined the western boundary of campus, and there is a stone wall which runs along a large portion of the east side of the street, leading to the old Main Gate, and into the driveway leading to Old Main.

 

Along or adjacent to all of these major streets are a wide variety of retail facilities serving the student, faculty and staff population: shops, bookstores, bars, banks, credit unions, coffeehouses and major chain fast-food restaurants such as Burger King and Chick-fil-A. The area near University Boulevard and Park Avenue, near the Main Gate, has long been a major center of such retail activity; many of the shops have been renovated since the late 1990s and a nine-story Marriott hotel was built in this immediate district in 1996.

 

The oldest campus buildings are located west of Old Main. Most of the buildings east of Old Main date from the 1940s to the 1980s, with a few recent buildings constructed in the years since 1990.

 

The Student Union Memorial Center, located on the north side of the Mall east of Old Main, was completely reconstructed between 2000 and 2003, replacing a 270,000-square-foot (25,000 m2) structure originally opened in 1951 (with additions in the 1960s). The new $60 million student union has 405,000 square feet (37,600 m2) of space on four levels, including 14 restaurants (including a food court with such national chains as Burger King, Panda Express, Papa John''''''''''''''''s Pizza and Chick-fil-A), a new two-level bookstore (that includes a counter for Clinique merchandise as well as an office supplies section sponsored by Staples with many of the same Staples-branded items found in their regular stores), 23 meeting rooms, eight lounge areas (including one dedicated to the USS Arizona), a computer lab, a U.S. Post Office, a copy center named Fast Copy, and a video arcade.

 

For current museum hours, fees, and directions see "campus visitor''''''''''''''''s guide" in the external links.

 

Much of the main campus has been designated an arboretum. Plants from around the world are labeled along a self-guided plant walk. The Krutch Cactus Garden includes the tallest Boojum tree in the state of Arizona.[6] (The university also manages Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park, located c. 85 miles (137 km) north of the main campus.)

Two herbaria are located on the University campus and both are referred to as "ARIZ" in the Index Herbariorum

The University of Arizona Herbarium - contains roughly 400,000 specimens of plants.

The Robert L. Gilbertson Mycological Herbarium - contains more than 40,000 specimens of fungi.

The Arizona State Museum is the oldest anthropology museum in the American Southwest.

The Center for Creative Photography features rotating exhibits. The permanent collection includes over 70,000 photos, including many Ansel Adams originals.

University of Arizona Museum of Art.

The Arizona Historical Society is located one block west of campus.

Flandrau Science Center has exhibits, a planetarium, and a public-access telescope.

The University of Arizona Mineral Museum is located inside Flandrau Science Center. The collection dates back to 1892 and contains over 20,000 minerals from around the world, including many examples from Arizona and Mexico.

The University of Arizona Poetry Center

The Stevie Eller Dance Theatre, opened in 2003 (across the Mall from McKale Center) as a 28,600-square-foot (2,660 m2) dedicated performance venue for the UA''''''''''''''''s dance program, one of the most highly regarded university dance departments in the United States. Designed by Gould Evans, a Phoenix-based architectural firm, the theatre was awarded the 2003 Citation Award from the American Institute of Architects, Arizona Chapter. [7]

The football stadium has the Navajo-Pinal-Sierra dormitory in it. The dorm rooms are underneath the seats along the South and East sides of the stadium.

 

Academics

 

[edit] Academic subdivisions

The University of Arizona offers 334 fields of study at four levels: bachelor''''''''''''''''s, masters, doctoral, and first professional.

 

Academic departments and programs are organized into colleges and schools. Typically, schools are largely independent or separately important from their parent college. In addition, not all schools are a part of a college. The university maintains a current list of colleges and schools at <a href="http://www.arizona.edu/index/colleges.php">www.arizona.edu/index/colleges.php</a>. [10]

  

[edit] Admissions

The UA is considered a "selective" university by U.S. News and World Report.[11] In the fall semester of 2007, the UA matriculated 6,569 freshmen, out of 16,853 freshmen admitted, from an application pool of 21,199 applicants. The average person admitted to the university as a freshman in fall 2007 had a weighted GPA of 3.31 and an average score of 1102 out of 1600 on the SAT admissions test. Sixty-nine of these freshman students were National Merit Scholars.[12]

 

UA students hail from all states in the U.S. While nearly 72% of students are from Arizona, nearly 10% are from California, followed by a significant student presence from Illinois, Texas, Washington, and New York (2007).[13] The UA has over 2,200 international students representing 122 countries. International students comprise approximately 6% of the total enrollment at UA.[13]

  

[edit] Academic and research reputation

Among the strongest programs at UA are optical sciences, astronomy, astrophysics, planetary sciences, hydrology, Earth Sciences, hydrogeology, linguistics, philosophy, sociology, architecture and landscape architecture, engineering, and anthropology.

 

Arizona is classified as a Carnegie Foundation "RU/VH: Research Universities (very high research activity)" university (formerly "Research 1" university).

 

The university receives more than $500 million USD annually in research funding, generating around two thirds of the research dollars in the Arizona university system.[14] 26th highest in the U.S. (including public and private institutions).[15] The university has an endowment of $466.7 million USD as of 2006(2006 NACUBO Endowment Study).[16]

 

UA is awarded more NASA grants for space exploration than any other university nationally.[17] The UA was recently awarded over $325 million USD for its Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (LPL) to lead NASA''''''''''''''''s 2007-08 mission to Mars to explore the Martian Arctic. The LPL''''''''''''''''s work in the Cassini spacecraft orbit around Saturn is larger than that of any other university globally. The UA laboratory designed and operated the atmospheric radiation investigations and imaging on the probe.[18] The UA operates the HiRISE camera, a part of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.

 

The Eller College of Management McGuire Entrepreneurship program is currently the number 1 ranked undergraduate program in the country. This ranking was made by The Princeton Review and Entrepreneur Magazine.

The Council for Aid to Education ranked the UA 12th among public universities and 24th overall in financial support and gifts.[citation needed] Campaign Arizona, an effort to raise over $1 billion USD for the school, exceeded that goal by $200 million a year earlier than projected.[19]

The National Science Foundation ranks UA 16th among public universities, and 26th among all universities nationwide in research funding.[19]

UA receives more NASA grants annually than the next nine top NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory-funded universities combined.[19]

UA students have been selected as Flinn, Truman, Rhodes, Goldwater, Fulbright, and National Merit scholars.[20]

According to The Chronicle of Higher Education, UA is among the top 25 producers of Fulbright awards in the U.S.[19]

 

[edit] World rankings

Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China): 77th (2008).

Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (Cybermetrics Lab, National Research Council of Spain): 18th (2008).

The G-Factor International University Ranking (Peter Hirst): 15th (2006).

Professional Ranking of World Universities (École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris, France): 35th (2008).

Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities (Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan): 37th (2008).

Global University Ranking by Wuhan University (Wuhan University, China): 43rd (2007).

 

[edit] Notable associations

UA is a member of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, a consortium of institutions pursuing research in astronomy. The association operates observatories and telescopes, notably Kitt Peak National Observatory located just outside of Tucson.

UA is a member of the Association of American Universities, and the sole representative from Arizona to this group.

 

[edit] Notable rankings

The Eller College of Management''''''''''''''''s programs in Accounting, Entrepreneurship, Management Information Systems, and Marketing are ranked in the nation''''''''''''''''s top 25 by U.S. News & World Report. The Masters in MIS program has been ranked in the top 5 by U.S. News & World Report since the inception of the rankings.[21] It is one of three programs to have this distinction.

The Eller MBA program has ranked among the top 50 programs for 11 straight years by U.S. News & World Report. In 2005 the MBA program was ranked 40th by U.S. News & World Report. Forbes Magazine ranked the Eller MBA program 33rd overall for having the best Return on Investment (ROI), in its fourth biennial rankings of business schools 2005. The MBA program was ranked 24th by The Wall Street Journal''''''''''''''''s 2005 Interactive Regional Ranking.[22]

Out of 30 accredited graduate programs in landscape architecture in the country, DesignIntelligence ranked the College’s School of Landscape Architecture as the No. 1 graduate program in the western region. For 2009 the Undergraduate Program in Architecture was ranked 12th in the nation for all universities, public and private.

The James E. Rogers College of Law was ranked 38th nationally by U.S. News & World Report in 2008.[23]

According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Graduate Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology is one of the top-rated research departments in ecology and evolutionary biology in the U.S.

The Systems and Industrial Engineering (SIE) Department is ranked 18th in the ''''''''''''''''America''''''''''''''''s Best Graduate Schools 2006'''''''''''''''' by US News and World Report.

The analytical chemistry program at UA is ranked 4th nationally by U.S. News & World Report (2006).[22]

The Geosciences program is ranked 7th nationally by U.S. News & World Report in 2006.[22]

The Doctor of Pharmacy program is ranked 4th nationally by U.S. News & World Report in 2005.[22]

The Photography program is ranked 9th nationally, also by U.S. News & World Report in 2008.

The Master of Fine Arts (MFA) program in Creative Writing at the University of Arizona has ranked in the top ten consistently according to U.S. News & World Report.

In the Philosophical Gourmet rankings of philosophy departments, the graduate program in Philosophy is ranked 13th nationally. The political philosophy program at the University of Arizona is top ranked first in the English speaking world, according to the same report.

Many programs in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences have ranked in the top ten in the U.S. according to Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index: Agricultural Sciences -- No. 1, Agronomy and Crop Sciences -- No. 1, Entomology -- No. 2, Botany and Plant Biology -- No. 4, Nutrition -- No. 10.

 

In 2005, the Association of Research Libraries, in its "Ranked Lists for Institutions for 2005" (the most recent year available), ranked the UA libraries as the 33rd overall university library in North America (out of 113) based on various statistical measures of quality; this is one rank below the library of Duke University, one rank ahead of that of Northwestern University[24] (both these schools are members, along with the UA, of the Association of American Universities).

 

As of 2006, the UA''''''''''''''''s library system contains nearly five million volumes.

 

The Main Library, opened in 1976, serves as the library system''''''''''''''''s reference, periodical, and administrative center; most of the main collections and special collections are housed here as well. The Main Library is located on the southeast quadrant of campus near McKale Center and Arizona Stadium.

 

In 2002, a $20 million, 100,000-square-foot (10,000 m2) addition, the Integrated Learning Center (ILC), was completed; it is a home base for first-year students (especially those undecided on a major) which features classrooms, auditoriums, a courtyard with an alcove for vending machines, and a greatly expanded computer lab (the Information Commons) with several dozen Gateway and Apple Macintosh G5 workstations (these computers are available for use by the general public (with some restrictions) as well as by UA students, faculty and staff). Much of the ILC was constructed underground, underneath the east end of the Mall; the ILC connects to the basement floor of the Main Library through the Information Commons. As part of the project, additional new office space for the Library was constructed on the existing fifth floor.

 

The Science and Engineering Library is in a nearby building from the 1960s that houses volumes and periodicals from those fields. The Music Building (on the northwest quadrant of campus where many of the fine arts disciplines are clustered) houses the Fine Arts Library, including reference collections for architecture, music (including sheet music, recordings and listening stations), and photography. There is a small library at the Center for Creative Photography, also in the fine arts complex, devoted to the art and science of photography. The Law Library is in the law building.

 

The libraries at University of Arizona are expecting a 15 percent budget cut for the 2009 fiscal year. They will begin to explore the possibilities of cutting staff, cutting online modules, and closing some libraries. The biggest threat is the possible closure of 11 libraries. The staff is projected to decline from 180 employees to 155 employees. They also intend to cut face-face instructional program that teaches students in English 101 and 102 how to navigate the library. This will now be taught online.

  

[edit] Athletics

Main article: Arizona Wildcats

Like many large public universities in the U.S., sports are a major activity on campus, and receive a large operating budget. Arizona''''''''''''''''s athletic teams are nicknamed the Wildcats, a name derived from a 1914 football game with then California champions Occidental College, where the L.A. Times asserted that, "the Arizona men showed the fight of wildcats."[25] The University of Arizona participates in the NCAA''''''''''''''''s Division I-A in the Pacific-10 Conference, which it joined in 1978.

  

[edit] Men''''''''''''''''s basketball

Main article: Arizona Wildcats men''''''''''''''''s basketball

The men''''''''''''''''s basketball team has been one of the nation''''''''''''''''s most successful programs since Lute Olson was hired as head coach in 1983, and is still known as a national powerhouse in Division I men''''''''''''''''s basketball.[26] As of 2009, the team has reached the NCAA Tournament 25 consecutive years, which is the longest active and second-longest streak in NCAA history (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill had the longest streak with 27).[27] The Wildcats have reached the Final Four of the NCAA tournament in 1988, 1994, 1997, and 2001. In 1997, Arizona defeated the University of Kentucky, the defending national champions, to win the NCAA National Championship (NCAA Men''''''''''''''''s Division I Basketball Championship) by a score of 84–79 in overtime; Arizona''''''''''''''''s first national championship victory. The 1997 championship team became the first and only in NCAA history to defeat three number-one seeds en route to a national title (Kansas, North Carolina and Kentucky -- the North Carolina game being the final game for longtime UNC head coach Dean Smith). Point guard Miles Simon was chosen as 1997 Final Four MVP (Simon was also an assistant coach under Olson from 2005–08). The Cats also boast the third highest winning percentage over the last twenty years. Arizona has won a total of 21 conference championships in its'''''''''''''''' programs history.

 

The Wildcats play their home games at the McKale Center in Tucson. A number of former Wildcats have gone on to pursue successful professional NBA careers (especially during the Lute Olson era), including Gilbert Arenas, Richard Jefferson, Mike Bibby, Jason Terry, Sean Elliott, Damon Stoudamire, Luke Walton, Hassan Adams, Salim Stoudamire, Andre Iguodala, Channing Frye, Brian Williams (later known as Bison Dele), Sean Rooks, Jud Buechler, Michael Dickerson and Steve Kerr. Kenny Lofton, now best known as a former Major League Baseball star, was a four year letter winner as a Wildcat basketball player (and was on the 1988 Final Four team), before one year on the Arizona baseball team. Another notable former Wildcat basketball player is Eugene Edgerson, who played on the 1997 and 2001 Final Four squads, and is currently one of the primary stars of the Harlem Globetrotters as "Wildkat" Edgerson.

 

Before Lute Olson''''''''''''''''s hire in 1983, Arizona was the first major Division I school to hire an African American head coach in Fred Snowden, in 1972. After a 25-year tenure as Arizona head coach, Olson announced his retirement from the Arizona basketball program in October 2008. After two seasons of using interim coaches, Arizona named Sean Miller, head coach at Xavier University, as its new head basketball coach in April 2009.

 

The football team began at The University of Arizona in 1899 under the nickname "Varsity" (a name kept until the 1914 season when the team was deemed the "Wildcats").[28]

 

The football team was notably successful in the 1990s, under head coach Dick Tomey; his "Desert Swarm" defense was characterized by tough, hard-nosed tactics. In 1993, the team had its first 10-win season and beat the University of Miami Hurricanes in the Fiesta Bowl by a score of 29–0. It was the bowl game''''''''''''''''s only shutout in its then 23-year history. In 1998, the team posted a school-record 12–1 season and made the Holiday Bowl in which it defeated the Nebraska Cornhuskers. Arizona ended that season ranked 4th nationally in the coaches and API poll. The 1998 Holiday Bowl was televised on ESPN and set the now-surpassed record of being the most watched of any bowl game in that network''''''''''''''''s history (the current record belongs to the 2005 Alamo Bowl between Michigan and Nebraska). The program is led by Mike Stoops, brother of Bob Stoops, the head football coach at the University of Oklahoma.

  

[edit] Baseball

Main article: Arizona Wildcats baseball

The baseball team had its first season in 1904. The baseball team has captured three national championship titles in 1976, 1980, and 1986, all coached by Jerry Kindall. Arizona baseball teams have appeared in the NCAA National Championship title series a total of six times, including 1956, 1959, 1963, 1976, 1980, and 1986 (College World Series). The team is currently coached by Andy Lopez; aided by Assistant Coach Mark Wasikowski, Assistant Coach Jeff Casper and Volunteer Assistant Coach Keith Francis. Arizona baseball also has a student section named The Hot Corner. Famous UA baseball alums include current Boston Red Sox manager Terry Francona, Cleveland Indian Kenny Lofton, Yankee Shelley Duncan, Brewers closer Trevor Hoffman, Diamondbacks third-base coach Chip Hale, former 12-year MLB pitcher and current minor league coach Craig Lefferts, longtime MLB standout J. T. Snow, star MLB pitchers Don Lee, Carl Thomas, Mike Paul, Dan Schneider, Rich Hinton and Ed Vosberg, NY Giants slugger Hank Leiber, Yankee catcher Ron Hassey, and Red Sox coach Brad Mills. Former Angels and Cardinals (among others) pitcher Joe Magrane is also a UA alum.

  

[edit] Softball

The Arizona softball team is among the top programs in the country and a perennial powerhouse. The softball team has won eight NCAA Women''''''''''''''''s College World Series titles, in 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2001, 2006 and 2007 under head coach Mike Candrea (NCAA Softball Championship). Arizona defeated the University of Tennessee in the 2007 National Championship series in Oklahoma City. The team has appeared in the NCAA National Championship in 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2006, and 2007 (a feat second only to UCLA), and has reached the College World Series 19 of the past 20 years. Coach Candrea, along with former Arizona pitcher Jennie Finch, led the 2004 U.S. Olympic softball team to a gold medal in Athens, Greece. The Wildcat softball team plays at Rita Hillenbrand Memorial Stadium.

  

[edit] Men''''''''''''''''s and women''''''''''''''''s golf

The university''''''''''''''''s golf teams have also been notably successful. The men''''''''''''''''s team won a national championship in 1992 (NCAA Division I Men''''''''''''''''s Golf Championships), while the women''''''''''''''''s team won national championships in 1996 and 2000 (NCAA Women''''''''''''''''s Golf Championship).

 

A strong athletic rivalry exists between the University of Arizona and Arizona State University located in Tempe. The UA leads the all-time record against ASU in men''''''''''''''''s basketball (138-73), football (44–35–1), and baseball (224–189–1) as of January 2006. The football rivalry game between the schools is known as "The Duel in the Desert." The trophy awarded after each game, the Territorial Cup, is the nation''''''''''''''''s oldest rivalry trophy, distinguished by the NCAA. Rivalries have also been created with other Pac-10 teams, especially University of California, Los Angeles which has provided a worthy softball rival and was Arizona''''''''''''''''s main basketball rival in the early and mid-1990s.

  

[edit] Mascot

The University mascot is an anthropomorphized wildcat named Wilbur. The identity of Wilbur is kept secret through the year as the mascot appears only in costume. In 1986, Wilbur married his longtime wildcat girlfriend, Wilma. Together, Wilbur and Wilma appear along with the cheerleading squad at most Wildcat sporting events.[29] Wilbur was originally created by Bob White as a cartoon character in the University''''''''''''''''s humor magazine, Kitty Kat. From 1915 through the 1950s the school mascot was a live bobcat, a species known locally as a wildcat. This succession of live mascots were known by the common name of Rufus Arizona, originally named after Rufus von Kleinsmid, president of the university from 1914 to 1921. 1959 marked the creation of the first incarnated Wilbur, when University student John Paquette and his roommate, Dick Heller, came up with idea of creating a costume for a student to wear. Ed Stuckenhoff was chosen to wear the costume at the homecoming game in 1959 against Texas Tech and since then it has become a long-standing tradition. Wilbur will celebrate his 50th birthday in November 2009.

 

Officially implemented in 2003, Zona Zoo is the official student section and student ticketing program for the University of Arizona Athletics. The Zona Zoo program is co-owned by the Associated Students of the University of Arizona (ASUA) and Arizona Athletics, the program is run by a team of spirited individuals called the Zona Zoo Crew. Zona Zoo is one of the largest and most spirited student sections in NCAA Division I Athletics.

 

Notable venues

McKale Center, opened in 1973, is currently used by men''''''''''''''''s and women''''''''''''''''s basketball, women''''''''''''''''s gymnastics, and women''''''''''''''''s volleyball. The official capacity has changed often. The largest crowd to see a game in McKale was 15,176 in 1976 for a game against the University of New Mexico, a main rival during that period. In 2000, the floor in McKale was dubbed Lute Olson Court, for the basketball program''''''''''''''''s winningest coach. During a memorial service in 2001 for Lute''''''''''''''''s wife, Bobbi, who died after a battle with ovarian cancer, the floor was renamed Lute and Bobbi Olson Court. In addition to the playing surface, McKale Center is host to the offices of the UA athletic department. McKale Center is named after J.F. Pop McKale, who was athletic director and coach from 1914 through 1957. Joe Cavaleri ("The Ooh-Aah Man") made his dramatic and inspiring appearances there.

Arizona Stadium, built in 1928 and last expanded in 1976, seats over 56,000 patrons. It hosts American football games and has also been used for university graduations. The turf is bermuda grass, taken from the local Tucson National Golf Club. Arizona football''''''''''''''''s home record is 258-139-12. The largest crowd ever in Arizona Stadium was 59,920 in 1996 for a game against Arizona State University.

Jerry Kindall Field at Frank Sancet Stadium hosts baseball games.

Rita Hillenbrand Memorial Stadium hosts softball games.

 

<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizona">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizona</a>

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Hôtel Royal Westminster, Promenade du Soleil, Menton, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

Bhutan is not a country that is generally well known. If asked, most people might say that it lies somewhere in the Himalayas and is a bit hilly. If pressed, they might think of yaks and snow leopards and rhododendrons, or maybe know it as the land where development is measured in terms of Gross National Happiness rather than Gross Domestic Privation.

 

And in fact, this latter characteristic most fits with my experiences of this mountainous kingdom – the happiness of the people stands out a mile. In the short time that I was there I cannot recall a frown or a curse or even so much as a tiny disagreement. Even the use of the car horn is limited to polite little peeps or playful messages sent to pretty girls as they saunter along the pavement. It is such a gentle society.

 

It’s also an equal and an emancipated one. Women are first in line to inherit following the death of their parents; it is they who get the house and the property and the rights, not the son (whether he’s older or not). Women can have as many spouses as men. Women are very forthright when it comes to flirting: within a couple of hours at my first hotel I was invited to a dance that evening and asked if I wanted to marry one of the waitresses. I didn’t take advantage of either offer but, given the beauty of the women here, I was sorely tempted. They really are extremely lovely – slim and wiggly bodies, velvety black hair that never seems to grey, wonderful dimpled smiles, and eyes that just penetrate into the heart of you.

 

They seem to be a very sexually liberated lot (well, that’s one way of calling it). My guide, Kinlay, was forever talking about his girlfriends (even though he’s married with two sons), hanky-panky (but no spanky, perhaps that was pushing revelations a mite too far given that I’d only just met him), and jiggy-jiggy (or, in local parlance, ‘jeggy-jeggy’), or shouting, ‘Charimdumaray’ (‘You’re lovely’) through the window at any passing female. But then he’s very young, he’s in his thirties … Or maybe he’s just trying to live up to the reputation of his namesake, Lama Drukpa Kunley (1455-1529), aka ‘The Divine Madman’, a saint who had the MO of driving out demons by means of excessive drinking and fornication which sounds a perfectly valid and jolly method of exorcism to me. His signature, a big phallus , now adorns many buildings throughout the area – a sign to ward off evil and protect the household. I wonder how this would go down with the good citizens of Ayr?

 

Many people still revere His Mad Divineship / Holy Madness and consequently many people have been given his name (or that of the temple that was dedicated to him, ‘Chimey Lhakhang’). The first two people I met in Bhutan were called Kunley. Then the third (who was confusingly a woman ) turned out to be a Kunley too. And so was the fourth. I gave up asking after that.

 

Bhutan is now a constitutional monarchy since the present king relinquished absolute rule in 2008. Like a 21 year old with the keys to life, the new democracy is revelling in its liberation, independence and autonomy and is enjoying furnishing its own flat and buying its own clothes and food. But at the same time it looks up to the person who granted it its freedom, and the whole country remains loyal and truly affectionate towards the Royal Family.

 

The king (31, Pisces - they like such details here) married his young betrothed (21, Virgo ) on the 13th October. Every shop had photos of the couple posted outside and inside, decorated with ribbons in the colours of the Buddha – blue (for the sky), white (for the clouds), red (for fire), green (for water) and yellow (for the soil). Huge banners adorned hillsides and town gates. Radio programmes were filled with callers wishing the happy pair a long, fruitful, loving union. And as I watched the wedding in a restaurant in Paro , with the assembled masses in the crowds and in the organised dances that must have taken weeks to rehearse, and thought that there could not be a single person in the nation who was not either at the ceremony or who was not glued to the TV, it occurred to me that this was what it must have been like with QEII 50 years ago . How long will this state of innocent bliss last?

 

Maybe for a long time yet. Not only is this a peaceful society (I never once felt threatened) but it’s also relatively prosperous, well organised, and, crucially and in a real way, it actually is a society. It is not a collection of individuals out to benefit for themselves. This is one big nation of people (about 650 000 of them) who believe they are part of a larger community of family, friends and neighbours. The neighbours may be from the east of the country (300 miles away and effectively 2 days travelling) who speak another dialect and wear different clothes, but they are still part of the same community.

 

Free education for all plays an important role in levelling classes and bringing people together. The king (apparently) lives in a ‘cottage’ and he is certainly one who puts much effort in meeting and greeting. The ceremony he attended in Thimpu, after the wedding, lasted from 0900 to 1700 and for a lot of that time he was moving amongst the crowds, shaking hands and speaking with (not ‘to’ – I don’t think he’s a Charlie. ‘And what do you do?’ – probably isn’t his stock, opening gambit) virtually everyone there.

 

Communities work in unison to improve the environment and their own lives. They harvest the rice together, it’s a communal thing. Often I saw small congregations on the hillside, burning juniper as incense, intoning incantations, chanting with monks. Several times I saw parties of villagers or school children walking along the roadside picking up litter. The land is free of piles of rubbish. This is a clean country. The drains and rivers are not open sewers. Not once did I see a rat.

 

Smoking was banned recently. It’s an offence to smoke – you could be imprisoned. For grass it’s up to three years for possession and 9 years for dealing. This was the first country to outlaw plastic bags too. Unfortunately, however, for both fags and bags neither law is strictly enforced and both are commonly (if expensively for the former) available.

 

But Bhutan is not Shangri La. In 1999 TV was introduced for the first time. Now the two favourite programmes are World Federation Wrestling from the USA, and ‘Bhutan Idol’ (the third series) – it was this programme that Kinlay said would prevent me from watching any footie on TV in the bars. ‘Idol’ was that popular! Everyone now has a TV and there is a good link between the growth in its distribution and the incidence of crime in the country.

Mobile phones came in in 2003 (so my guide said) and they are now ubiquitous. Young people have adopted the global practice of meeting up and then spending all the time texting and / or phoning other friends elsewhere. That’s when they can stop blowing bubble gum for long enough to say anything. One person I met had a sophisticated ring tone system that alerted him to whoever was trying to contact him: his wife’s ring tone was his young son’s crying and gurgling; his mate’s tone was an extract from his favourite blue movie accompanied by the obligatory image of a busty brunette.

 

The people like to dress up for occasions (like the festival – Tseschu – in Thimpu) with their finest national gear: beautiful, iridescent, brightly coloured silk dresses for the women; rather more subdued but still unique skirts and knee-high stockings for the men. When visiting national monuments (such as museums, temples, dzongs ) or events they have to dress in national costume. But these days, for normal everyday wear, they tend far more towards the boring western norm of t-shirts and jeans and track-suits (usually with ‘Man Utd’ written on them. Damn their souls!). There was a great contrast between the clothes worn to the formal Tseschu festival and the far less formal singalong in Thimpu town square – colourful, vibrant, exciting of the exotic compared with the dull, drab, grey and black of the mundane (and the future).

 

Traditional sports seem to be holding their own against the overwhelming and inexorable influence of football . Archery is something the Bhutanese are especially good at having won medals of all colours at recent Olympics. These days they employ carbon composite bows for main competitions. Traditional bows of bamboo are still found and used but mainly to simply maintain the tradition. The target is a wooden board about 40cm high and usually 140m from the archer. No wonder they’re good at it.

 

Darts (not the UK variety) – about 15cm long consisting of a 3cm metal point, a wooden shaft and 5cm feathers – is also played at weekends. The ‘court’ is longer than a cricket pitch and the target is a 30cm wooden board with a bulls-eye near the top. A wall of earth or concrete backdrops the target, really just a sop to health and safety. They are not overly concerned with H&S, which is healthy.

 

For both archery and darts, the opposing team (all wearing fine traditional skirts ) line up alongside the target and watch intently as the projectile is released and heads towards them. The observers’ reaction time for the darts is far less than that for archery. I think I was happier watching the archery. When a dart or arrow actually hits the board it triggers a mediaeval ritual of chanting and dancing by both of the teams, in praise of the gods for such a blessing. If only our supporters and ‘sportsmen’ took win and loss in the same spirit.

 

There are cars in Bhutan as well. Not many of them because there aren’t that many people. They are in good condition and few of them send out blasts of poisonous black smoke. I saw my first privately-owned electric car here. They are generally new (the favourites being Hyundais and Toyota) and without any dents. Motorbikes are rare and tuc-tucs are entirely absent (which is such a relief!). Roads (maintained and built by Indians, and funded by the RoI government) are largely pothole-free and gloriously smooth. It still takes a long time to get anywhere because of the winding nature of the terrain, but at least it’s almost painless.

 

But, of course, this road system comes at a cost. Gangs of Indians, thousands of them, have been imported and have set up semi-permanent residence in Bhutan (without citizen rights, of course) and their sole employment, occupation and raison d’etre is road building and repair. They work very long hours (0600 to 1600 hrs) for a pittance. Their tools are mainly their hands: hauling large stones over cliffs or onto lorries. Primitive implements are provided: back bent double as they use pathetic brushes to sweep the road; women shovelling sand and gravel and throwing it through sieves. Some (men as well as women) actually break rocks with hammers, all day long, like a work detail from a ‘40s state penitentiary, a modern day chain-gang. These gangs have their own settlements and schools; they are separate from mainstream Bhutanese society. But they don’t seem to be discriminated or prejudiced against. There is, at least, no bigotry in Bhutan.

 

Except perhaps against the Nepalese. This is not talked about, but many Bhutanese who originated in Nepal (two or three or more generations back) were forcibly deported in the ‘90s (?) and now reside in refugee camps in Nepal. I met only one person whose ancestors came from Nepal but he seemed contented and calm. He might have said more but we’d been caught up in a delay caused by a landslide and the obstruction had just been removed so we had to move on. 11 days is not enough in Bhutan.

 

You might think that a Buddhist democracy consisting of less than three quarters of a million people might not need or, especially, want an army. How could they justify killing? And anyway, what could their paltry population hope to accomplish against the might of the Indians or Chinese if they chose to invade ? But it’s a career path to some (Kinlay considered it after university (in Chennai) if tourism didn’t work out), and for others the army really is a necessity.

 

Earlier in the noughties there was some trouble with Assamese rebels. They had occupied some of the forests of the duars in Bhutan (just across the border) and were causing problems (not with the locals – the Assamese were generous with their payment for goods – but with the (Indian?) politicians). Negotiations with the rebels were not successful and so the Bhutanese government sent in the troops. This resulted in the insurgents being ousted but at the cost of 12 Bhutanese soldiers being killed. The effects of this battle / war seems to have become deeply embedded within the psyche of the Bhutanese; a large memorial (at Dochu La consisting of 108 chortens) was established to commemorate the conflict and one of the on-going repercussions is that the army are more popular than ever. Not that it would ever sink to the depths of the Burmese army and become a junta. That would be unthinkable.

 

So the army is needed . But what about religious or moral objections, after all Costa Rica doesn’t have a standing army so surely a strict Buddhist nation could do without one? But then the Bhutanese love meat. They are devout devourers of pork and beef and, to a slightly lesser extent, chicken? So long as they don’t have to kill the animals themselves they are happy to consume flesh.

 

Do I hear calls of ‘Hypocracy’? Well, I’m not going to shout them down.

 

But all religions are institutionally hypocritical and Buddhism is no worse than any other. An army of a Buddhist nation sounds contradictory but religion has always been political, nations are essentially political beasts with artificial boundaries, politicians need to maintain and protect those boundaries as well as they can given limited resources, and armies are the main way of providing protection.

 

At least this army is not there to violate other nations or supress the population or support an unauthorised government. It provides comfort and a sense of security, a source of pride, and a life for many people. Who am I to criticise it?

 

The trekking in Bhutan was far better than in Nepal (although Nepal was good). Here it was proper camping, there it was in Guesthouses. Nepal is over-populated, there is no getting away from people; waves of trekkers (ramblers) met you head on along the Poon Hill circuit; football crowds gathered to catch the dawn view of Annapurna; dogs, locals, cows, agricultural terraces … they all swarm and cover the slopes of Nepal.

 

But in Bhutan … ah, it’s different. I met perhaps 10 other trekkers on my 5 day stint. Yes, there were monks and the occasional dog, but mainly it was me in the wild, in untouched, blue pine forests and stands of huge or dwarf rhodies and junipers and alpine meadows of the highest hills. Alongside the soft beats of the wings of the goshawk, and ‘glowps’ of ravens, and cheeky cawings of choughs there was the whisper of winds and ripple of drying leaves. No sounds of machinery. No barking . No drunken laughter . It was heaven.

 

Of course I was spoilt. Apart from the landscape, and the views, and the sky and the clouds, and the wildlife and the vegetation, I had a platoon of (for wont of a better word ) servants to look after my every needs. I had my own chef, and he had a helper. I had a guide who made sure I didn’t fall down a cliff or take the wrong path. I had a horseman who looked after the seven ponies that accompanied our small expedition. The only person I lacked was a masseur (which, incidentally, was what I really needed).

 

They erected my tent and decamped for me. They cooked me three meals a day and washed up after me. I was served at my table and they even ran off to buy beer for me . They set up my own private lav, provided loo paper, and filled the hole in after me. My guide even carried my water bottle. They did everything for me except tuck me in at night (for which I was grateful).

 

It was hard walking, some of the slopes were steep, and it was bloody cold at night. I met a couple of Aussies on the second day and, after I remarked how bloody cold it was the previous night (not that I was fixated or anything), they said, ‘Well, it gets colder. There was frost on the ground two nights ago.’ I said, ‘Great. Good job my sleeping bag isn’t as good as I thought it was (and the zip’s broken), and that I forgot my socks.’ They said, ‘You forgot your socks?! Are you mad?’ I didn’t say anything. ‘But you’re from Scotland, right?’ ‘Aye,’ I said, ‘You’ll be fine then.’ They were nice people but they could afford to be because they’d survived the ordeal and were now heading back to civilisation. They had had socks. Smug bastards. Nice people though.

 

Ten minutes later, as I was watching a huge thanka being unfolded by the Phajoding monks, the lady (to my shame I never did get to know her name) ran up to me and offered, like a true Buddhist using both hands, a pair of socks. ‘They’re a day and a half old,’ she said, ‘but they’ll save your life!’ I didn’t know what to say so I kept repeating, like the simpleton John Miles played in ‘Ryan’s Daughter’, ‘Thank you, thank you.’ I refrained from saying ‘God bless’, but I was genuinely touched (in more ways than one) and didn’t even have the sense to ask for their address so that I could send them back to Oz. Which was just as well. But I would have had them washed.

 

And the socks really were a Godsend. Never before have I held so much regard for footware. They (along with the extra blanket supplied by chef) actually made the next three nights bearable (just. There was still the issue of the bells and the thin mattress). Thanks Australia ;-)

 

Overall, you might think that a minimum of $200 a day to visit and exist in Bhutan is a lot of money. And it is. No argument. But … this money covers everything apart from incidentals such as snacks and souvenirs , and so, although it’s expensive, it’s not that expensive and is, actually, when it comes down to it, damned good value for money. Outside of Bhutan, how much would it cost to have what they provided me? A personal guide (just for little old me) who answers most of the inane and arcane questions I usually pose to myself or strangers (who aren’t good at responding. Either of them) and panders to almost my every whim My own transport (so I can say, ‘Why don’t we go down this wee road?’, ‘Can we just stop here for a minute to take a photo’, and ‘STOP! There’s a bird I haven’t seen, I’m sure of it. Might be new to science too. Come on, we’ll be famous!’ ) My your own private expeditionary force to conquer the Himalayas? The chance to stay in top class hotels (with clean, unstained sheets and electrics that work. Luxury). To have all your meals provided for you (most of them excellent). And to have the flexibility to be able to change itinerary and venues / hotels depending on how you feel … and all this amongst the beauty, serenity and unspoilt splendour of a country which is Bhutan …

 

Well, what can I say? It’s not a perfect country, but it comes damned close to it.

 

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Now an incredible rarity on the West Coast Mainline, although once abundant, is the Class 43 High Speed Train sets. But occasionally one set does make an appearance, usually in the form of the New Measurement Train or one of Grand Central's sets which come to Crewe LNWR works in order to be maintained and to have their tyres turned.

 

Seen stood alone at the south end of the depot is Grand Central's 43480 (ex-43080), awaiting its go in the adjacent tyre turning plant.

Maintained in airworthy condition by the Russian Federation of Aircraft Lovers and seen at Zhukovsky in 1997

Martin Stratmann, President, Max-Planck Institute, Germany speaking during the Session "Maintaining Innovation" at the Annual Meeting 2017 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 20, 2017. .Copyright by World Economic Forum / Manuel Lopez

Interstate 10 (I-10) is the major east–west Interstate Highway in the Southern United States. In the U.S. state of Texas, it runs east from Anthony, at the border with New Mexico, through El Paso, San Antonio and Houston to the border with Louisiana in Orange, Texas. At just under 879 miles (1,415 km), the stretch of Interstate 10 crossing Texas, maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation, is the longest continuous untolled freeway under a single authority in North America, a title formerly held by Ontario's Highway 401. Mile marker 880 (and the corresponding exit number) near Orange are the highest numbered mile marker and exit on the Interstate Highway System or, for that matter, on any freeway in North America.

 

Texas alone contains more than a third of the interstate's entire length. El Paso, near the Texas-New Mexico state line, is 785 miles (1,263 km) from the western terminus of I-10 in Santa Monica, California, making it closer to Los Angeles than it is to Orange, Texas, 857 miles (1,379 km) away. Likewise, Orange, on the Texas–Louisiana state line, is only 789 miles (1,270 km) from the eastern terminus of I-10 in Jacksonville, Florida.

 

Leaving San Antonio, I-10 again passes I-410 and Loop 1604. I-10 is known as the 90th Infantry Division Memorial Highway on this stretch east of San Antonio. I-10 and US 90 continue their concurrency until they diverge in Seguin. They continue from there on to Houston nearly paralleling each other with short stints of overlaps along the route.

 

In Houston, from the western suburb of Katy to downtown, I-10 is known as the Katy Freeway. This section was widened in 2008 to as many as 26 total lanes, counting the six lanes of the access road, which are not limited-access and therefore technically not part of the freeway itself, but are directly adjacent. Between the West Beltway and the West Loop, the minimum lane count is 22 total lanes. In this section, the width is 24 lanes at multiple locations and up to 26 lanes east of Gessner Road (12 main lanes, 8 lanes of access roads, and 6 mid-freeway HOT/HOV lanes). From the Fort Bend county line to I-610, there is a minimum of four main lanes in each direction. The maximum number of undivided lanes at any point on the freeway is nine (though this includes one exit-only lane), in the eastbound direction approaching Antoine Drive; in the world, this is one of the widest sections of undivided highway in a single direction.The widest right-of-way, 556 ft (169 m), occurs at the Katy Freeway's intersection with Bunker Hill; at that point, the expansion plans called for six main lanes plus two toll lanes in each direction along with 10 lanes on the feeder/frontage roads. The actual striping after construction delineates 29 lanes including all 26 of the planned lanes plus an additional lane in each direction to enter or exit the toll lanes and one more turn lane on the eastbound feeder road.

 

Between I-610 and I-45 west of downtown, the Interstate contains at least five main lanes in each direction. Before 2008, this section had traditionally been the widest section of I-10 in the Houston area and the only one with a significant portion below grade. Starting in 2010, a project was started to widen the freeway, adding one extra main lane in each direction between Shepherd Drive and Taylor Street. In addition, the eastbound feeder road which ends at Studemont is being extended to Taylor Street. As I-10 travels through downtown, it junctions with I-45 and US 59, the future corridor of I-69 through Texas. Both interchanges feature left exits causing several lane shifts for through traffic. I-10 provides access to Minute Maid Park, home of the Houston Astros, and also runs through the campus of the University of Houston–Downtown.

 

The section east of downtown Houston is officially known as the "East Freeway," although it is widely known by locals as the Baytown East Freeway, or colloquially shortened to the Beast, due to a marketing push by Baytown, one of the largest cities in the Greater Houston Area.

 

In Beaumont, it is designated Eastex Freeway between both splits with US 69. Eastex is not to be confused with the designation for US 59 (Future I-69) in Houston.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_10_in_Texas

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_...

 

Photo Title: Maintaining Social Distance to enter Eye Care facility during COVID-19

Submitted by: Shamim Khan

Category: Amateur

Country: Bangladesh

Organisation: Orbis International

COVID-19 Photo: Yes

Photo Caption: Maintaining Social Distance of Patients in front of Mazharul Haque BNSB Eye Hospital, to enter in the Eye Care facility after checking sign and symptoms of COVID-19 during this global pandemic.

  

----

Photo uploaded from the #HopeInSight Photo Competition on photocomp.iapb.org held for World Sight Day 2020.

Saraswati (Sanskrit: सरस्वती, Sarasvatī) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. All the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively.

 

The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring) in her honour, and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day. The Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects.

 

Saraswati as a goddess of knowledge, music and arts is also found outside India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia) and Myanmar.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Saraswati, sometimes spelled Sarasvati, is a Sanskrit fusion word of Sara (सार) which means essence, and Sva (स्व) which means one self, the fused word meaning "essence of one self", and Saraswati meaning "one who leads to essence of self knowledge". It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati (सुरस-वति) which means "one with plenty of water".

 

The word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to Sarasvati River and mentioned with other northwestern Indian rivers such as Drishadvati. Saraswati then connotes a river deity. In Book 2, Rigveda calls Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, of goddesses.

 

अम्बितमे नदीतमे देवितमे सरस्वति |

– Rigveda 2.41.16

 

Saraswati is celebrated as a feminine deity with healing, purifying powers of abundant, flowing waters in Book 10 of Rigveda, as follows:

 

अपो अस्मान मातरः शुन्धयन्तु घर्तेन नो घर्तप्वः पुनन्तु |

विश्वं हि रिप्रं परवहन्ति देविरुदिदाभ्यः शुचिरापूत एमि ||

– Rigveda 10.17

 

May the waters, the mothers, cleanse us,

may they who purify with butter, purify us with butter,

for these goddesses bear away defilement,

I come up out of them pure and cleansed.

–Translated by John Muir

 

In Vedic literature, Saraswati gains the same significance to early Indians, states John Muir, as Ganges river became to their descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is already declared to be the "possessor of knowledge". Her importance grows in Vedas composed after Rigveda and in Brahmanas, and the word evolves in its meaning from "waters that purify", to "that which purifies", to "vach (speech) that purifies", to "knowledge that purifies", and ultimately into a spiritual concept of a goddess that embodies knowledge, arts, music, melody, muse, language, rhetoric, eloquence, creative work and anything whose flow purifies the essence and self of a person. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning and the very essence of one's activity, one's action.

 

Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani (goddess of sciences), Brahmi (from being wife of Brahma), Bharadi (goddess of history), Vani and Vachi (both referring to the flow of music/song, melodious speech, eloquent speaking respectively), Varnesvari (goddess of letters), Kavijihvagravasini (one who dwells on the tongue of poets).

 

NOMENCLATURE

In the Telugu language, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli (చదువుల తల్లి), Sharada (శారద). In Konkani, she is referred to as Sharada, Veenapani, Pustaka dharini, Vidyadayini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, Vani, Veenapani in the famous Sringeri temple. In Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal (கலைமகள்), Kalaivaani (கலைவாணி), Vaani (வாணி), Bharathi. She is also addressed as Sharada (the one who loves the autumn season), Veena pustaka dharani (the one holding books and a Veena), Vaakdevi, Vagdevi, Vani (all meaning "speech"), Varadhanayagi (the one bestowing boons).

 

Within India, she is locally spelled as Bengali: সরস্বতী, Saraswati ?, Malayalam: സരസ്വതി, Saraswathy ?, and Tamil: சரஸ்வதி, Sarasvatī ?.

 

Outside India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi (သူရဿတီ, pronounced: [θùja̰ðədì] or [θùɹa̰ðədì]) or Tipitaka Medaw (တိပိဋကမယ်တော်, pronounced: [tḭpḭtəka̰ mɛ̀dɔ̀]), in Chinese as Biàncáitiān (辯才天), in Japanese as Benzaiten (弁才天/弁財天) and in Thai as Suratsawadi (สุรัสวดี) or Saratsawadi (สรัสวดี).

 

HISTORY

Saraswati is found in almost every major ancient and medieval Indian literature between 1000 BC to 1500 AD. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, and later as the celestial creative symphony who appeared when Brahma created the universe. In Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music. Saraswati is the active energy and power of Brahma. She is also mentioned in many minor Sanskrit publications such as Sarada Tilaka of 8th century AD as follows, May the goddess of speech enable us to attain all possible eloquence,

 

she who wears on her locks a young moon,

who shines with exquisite lustre,

who sits reclined on a white lotus,

and from the crimson cusp of whose hands pours,

radiance on the implements of writing, and books produced by her favour.

 

– On Saraswati, Sarada TilakaSaraswati became a prominent deity in Buddhist iconography – the consort of Manjushri in 1st millennium AD. In some instances such as in the Sadhanamala of Buddhist pantheon, she has been symbolically represented similar to regional Hindu iconography, but unlike the more well known depictions of Saraswati.

 

SYMBOLISM AND ICONOGRAPHY

The goddess Saraswati is often depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus, which symbolizes light, knowledge and truth. She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom.

 

She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. When shown with four hands, those hands symbolically mirror her husband Brahma's four heads, representing manas (mind, sense), buddhi (intellect, reasoning), citta (imagination, creativity) and ahamkara (self consciousness, ego). Brahma represents the abstract, she action and reality.

 

The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning — a pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary, garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (lute or vina). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, inner reflection and spirituality. A pot of water represents powers to purify the right from wrong, the clean from unclean, and the essence from the misleading. In some texts, the pot of water is symbolism for soma - the drink that liberates and leads to knowledge. The musical instrument, typically a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. Saraswati is also associated with anurāga, the love for and rhythm of music, which represents all emotions and feelings expressed in speech or music.

 

A hansa / hans or swan is often located next to her feet. In Hindu mythology, hans is a sacred bird, which if offered a mixture of milk and water, is said to be able to drink the milk alone. It thus symbolizes discrimination between the good from the bad, the essence from the superficial, the eternal from the evanescent. Due to her association with the swan, Saraswati is also referred to as Hansvahini, which means "she who has a hansa / hans as her vehicle". The swan is also a symbolism for spiritual perfection, transcendence and moksha.

 

Sometimes a citramekhala (also called mayura, peacock) is shown beside the goddess. The peacock symbolizes colorful splendor, celebration of dance, and peacock's ability to eat poison (snakes) yet transmute from it a beautiful plumage.

 

She is usually depicted near a flowing river or near a water body, which may be related to her early history as a river goddess

 

REGIONAL MANIFESTATIONS OF SARASWATI

MAHA SARASWATI

In some regions of India, such as Vindhya, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam, as well as east Nepal, Saraswati is part of the Devi Mahatmya mythology, in the trinity of Maha Kali, Maha Lakshmi and Maha Saraswati. This is one of many different Hindu legends that attempt to explain how Hindu trinity of gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) and goddesses (Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati) came into being. Various Purana texts offer alternate legends for Maha Saraswati.

 

Maha Saraswati is depicted as eight-armed and is often portrayed holding a Veena whilst sitting on a white lotus flower.

 

Her dhyāna shloka given at the beginning of the fifth chapter of Devi Mahatmya is:

 

Wielding in her lotus-hands the bell, trident, ploughshare, conch, pestle, discus, bow, and arrow, her lustre is like that of a moon shining in the autumn sky. She is born from the body of Gowri and is the sustaining base of the three worlds. That Mahasaraswati I worship here who destroyed Sumbha and other asuras.

 

Mahasaraswati is also part of another legend, the Navdurgas, or nine forms of Durga, revered as powerful and dangerous goddesses in eastern India. They have special significance on Navaratri in these regions. All of these are seen ultimately as aspects of a single great Hindu goddess, with Maha Saraswati as one of those nine.

 

MAHAVIDYA NILA SARASWATI

In Tibet and parts of India, Nilasaraswati is a form of Mahavidya Tara. Nila Saraswati is a different deity than traditional Saraswati, yet subsumes her knowledge and creative energy in tantric literature. Nila Sarasvati is the ugra (angry, violent, destructive) manifestation in a one school of Hinduism, while the more common Saraswati is the saumya (calm, compassionate, productive) manifestation found in most schools of Hinduism. In tantric literature of the former, Nilasaraswati has a 100 names. There are separate dhyana shlokas and mantras for her worship in Tantrasara.

 

WORSHIP

TEMPLES

There are many temples, dedicated to Saraswati around the world. Some notable temples include the Gnana Saraswati Temple in Basar, on the banks of the River Godavari, the Wargal Saraswati and Shri Saraswati Kshetramu temples in Medak, Telangana. In Karnataka, one of many Saraswati/Sharada pilgrimage spots is Shringeri Sharadamba Temple. In Ernakulam district of Kerala, there is a famous Saraswati temple in North Paravur, namely Dakshina Mookambika Temple North Paravur. In Tamil Nadu, Koothanur hosts a Saraswati temples about 25 kilometres from Tiruvarur.

 

FESTIVALS

Saraswati's is remembered on – Vasant Panchami – is a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the 5th day in the Hindu calendar month of Magha (about February). Hindus celebrate this festival in temples, homes and educational institutes alike.

 

In Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka, Saraswati Puja starts with Saraswati Avahan on Maha Saptami and ends on Vijayadashami with Saraswati Udasan or Visarjan.

 

SARASWATI PUJA CALENDAR

Saraswati Puja Avahan – Maha Saptami – Triratna vratam starts in Andhra Pradesh.

Saraswati Puja (main puja) – Durga Ashtami

Saraswati Uttara Puja – Mahanavami

Saraswati Visarjan or Udasan – Vijaya Dashami

Saraswati Kartik Purnima on (Sristhal) siddhpur of Gujaratis ancient festival since Solanki ruling of Patan state.

 

SARASWATI PUJA IN SOUTH INDIA

In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the last three days of the Navaratri festival, i.e., Ashtami, Navami, and Dashami, are celebrated as Sarasvati Puja. The celebrations start with the Puja Vypu (Placing for Worship). It consists of placing the books for puja on the Ashtami day. It may be in one's own house, in the local nursery school run by traditional teachers, or in the local temple. The books will be taken out for reading, after worship, only on the morning of the third day (Vijaya Dashami). It is called Puja Eduppu (Taking [from] Puja). Children are happy, since they are not expected to study on these days. On the Vijaya Dashami day, Kerala celebrates the Ezhuthiniruthu or Initiation of Writing for the little children before they are admitted to nursery schools. This is also called Vidyarambham. The child is made to write for the first time on the rice spread in a plate with the index finger, guided by an elder of the family or by a teacher.

 

SARASWATI OUTSIDE INDIA

SARASWATI IN MYANMAR

In Burma, the Shwezigon Mon Inscription dated to be of 1084 AD, near Bagan, recites the name Saraswati as follows,

 

"The wisdom of eloquence called Saraswati shall dwell in mouth of King Sri Tribhuwanadityadhammaraja at all times". – Translated by Than Tun

 

Statue of Thurathadi at Kyauktawgyi Buddha Temple (Yangon)

 

In Buddhist arts of Myanmar, she is called Thurathadi (or Thayéthadi).: 215 Students in Myanmar pray for her blessings before their exams. :327 She is also believed to be, in Mahayana pantheon of Myanmar, the protector of Buddhist scriptures.

 

SARASWATI IN JAPAN

The concept of Saraswati migrated from India, through China to Japan, where she appears as Benzaiten (弁財天). Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the 6th through 8th centuries. She is often depicted holding a biwa, a traditional Japanese lute musical instrument. She is enshrined on numerous locations throughout Japan such as the Kamakura's Zeniarai Benzaiten Ugafuku Shrine or Nagoya's Kawahara Shrine; the three biggest shrines in Japan in her honour are at the Enoshima Island in Sagami Bay, the Chikubu Island in Lake Biwa, and the Itsukushima Island in Seto Inland Sea.

 

SARASWATI IN CAMBODIA

Saraswati was honoured with invocations among Hindus of Angkorian Cambodia, suggests a tenth-century and another eleventh-century inscription. She and Brahma are referred to in Cambodian epigraphy from the 7th century onwards, and she is praised by Khmer poets for being goddess of eloquence, writing and music. More offerings were made to her than to her husband Brahma. She is also referred to as Vagisvari and Bharati in Yasovarman era Khmer literature.

 

SARASWATI IN THAILAND

In ancient Thai literature, Saraswati (Thai: สุรัสวดี; rtgs: Suratsawadi) is the goddess of speech and learning, and consort of Brahma. Over time, Hindu and Buddhist concepts on deities merged in Thailand. Icons of Saraswati with other deities of India are found in old Thai wats. Amulets with Saraswati and a peacock are also found in Thailand.

 

SARASWATI IN INDONESIA

Saraswati is an important goddess in Balinese Hinduism. She shares the same attributes and iconography as Saraswati in Hindu literature of India - in both places, she is the goddess of knowledge, creative arts, wisdom, language, learning and purity. In Bali, she is celebrated on Saraswati day, one of the main festivals for Hindus in Indonesia. The day marks the close of 210-day year in the Pawukon calendar.

 

On Saraswati day, people make offerings in the form of flowers in temples and to sacred texts. The day after Saraswati day, is Banyu Pinaruh, a day of cleansing. On this day, Hindus of Bali go to the sea, sacred waterfalls or river spots, offer prayers to Saraswati, and then rinse themselves in that water in the morning. Then they prepare a feast, such as the traditional bebek betutu and nasi kuning, that they share.

 

The Saraswati Day festival has a long history in Bali. It has become more widespread in Hindu community of Indonesia in recent decades, and it is celebrated with theatre and dance performance.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

 

A few months ago I read a post about this ancient monument, I was unaware of its existence.

 

I logged into my Google Maps and recorded it as one of my desired places to visit.

 

Today Thursday 15th November 2018 Scotland basked in a beautiful Autumn sunshine, my favoured shooting conditions, I packed my Nikon and drove the 25 miles to the site.

 

Historic Environment Scotland maintain the monument , thankfully they have done a magnificent job, I truly believe it is important to preserve history for the generations to come.

 

I had a magnificent two hours recording my experience, I never fail to feel overwhelmed by the wealth of history that surrounds Aberdeen and the shire.

 

Thank's to Historic Environment Scotland for their detailed information on this site.

 

Ancient Monument - Kinkell Church - Inverurie Aberdeen Scotland.

 

Kinkell Church, built in the 1200s, is a classic medieval Highland church: simply designed and rectangular in shape. But the liturgical features installed in the 1520s are anything but plain. The stone sacrament house in the north of the church is an especially fine fixture.

 

Kinkell was refitted for Presbyterian worship following the Protestant Reformation of 1560, and declared redundant in 1771. Much of the building was dismantled and building materials recycled for use in a new kirk.

 

KINKELL CHURCH

 

• Kinkell Church, dedicated to St Michael, consist of the remains of a simple rectangular medieval parish church, of which only the N, W and part of the E

wall are upstanding.

 

The church was partly remodelled, perhaps on more than one occasion,

including in the early 16th century, when an elaborately carved Sacrament

House was built into the E end of the N wall.

 

Within the church is the monument of Gilbert de Greenlaw, killed at the battle

of Harlaw in 1411; the stone was re-used for a Forbes burial in 1592

 

CHARACTER OF THE MONUMENT

 

The church appears to have come on record in the early 13th century. Kinkell

was a mother church, or plebanus, and had dependent chapels at Dyce,

Drumblade, Kemnay, Kinnellar, Kintore and Skene.

 

This connection, which

was of long standing, may have arisen if Kinkell’s origins was that of an ecclesiastical foundation, rather like a minster, with an extensive parochia.

 

This would push back its origins considerably.

  

From the 14th century, certain revenues of the church evidently pertained to the Knights Hospitallers, although it is also recorded as an independent parsonage during the 14th century.

  

Any connection with the Hospitallers came to an end in 1420, when the church

and its annexes were erected into a prebend of Aberdeen Cathedral.

 

From a date and a set of initials on the sacrament house, it is apparent that in 1524 Alexander Galloway, rector of Kinkell and canon of Aberdeen Cathedral,

paid for the splendid sacrament house built into the E end of the N wall.

 

He appears to have been paying for further work the following year as a carved stone panel depicting the crucifixion, dated 1525, and with Alexander’s initials (three times), is built into the N wall (only a bronze replica survives; the original

was removed to Aberdeen Museum in 1934 and subsequently lost).

 

The church was abandoned in 1771 when the parish was amalgamated with

Keithhall. It was partially demolished to provide building materials for the new

parish church.

 

Archaeological Overview

 

There have been no recorded archaeological investigations at Kinkell.

 

The archaeological potential of the monument is extremely high and any excavation is very like to come across human remains, and perhaps also earlier church

buildings on the site.

  

Artistic/Architectural Overview

 

The church is fragmentary and devoid of features apart for the sacrament

house, the crucifixion panel and a single jamb of what must have been a large,

traceried E window. The simple oblong plan of the church suggests that the

basic form of the church dates from the early 13th century, with much late

medieval remodelling.

2/3

• The sacrament house is a particularly fine, and unique, example of this type of

medieval church fixture. It was an aumbry, or wall cupboard, designed to

reserve the host in appropriate reverential surroundings.

• The sacrament house at Kinkell shares several features with others found in

the NE, associated with Galloway, but is unique due to its cross shape. The

aumbry is flanked by two buttresses with crocketed finials. Between these is a

panel, which although badly defaced, appears to have been ornamented with a

monstrance supported by two angels (a very common motif found on other

sacrament houses associated with Alexander Galloway). Above this panel is a

corbelled and battlemented cornice, and above this is an oblong panel, which

probably contained a crucifixion scene, but is now empty. Flanking the

pinnacles are two panels, each filled with scrolls, which are of different forms

although the inscriptions on the scrolls were meant to be read as one and

state: ‘Here is preserved that body which was born of a virgin’.

• The crucifixion panel has a representation of St Michael, the archangel (to

whom the church was dedicated) to the right of the crucified, the Virgin on the

left and under her a priest, perhaps representing Galloway himself as donor,

standing beside an altar on which are Galloway’s initials.

• The sacrament house and the Crucifixion panel appear to have been part of a

liturgical revival in the diocese of Aberdeen during the early decade on the 16th

century. Alexander Galloway appear to have been a central figure in the move

to ensure parish churches had the fittings for the proper worship of God, and in

particular devotion to the Blessed Sacrament. He erected several sacrament

houses in churches he was involved in; Kinkell and its dependents at Dyce and

Kintore, and at King College, Aberdeen and may have been influential in the

decision of his colleagues, Alexander Spittal of Auchindoir and Alexander Lyon

of Turiff, to erect those in their respective churches. Galloway also donated a

font to Kinkell, which now is now in St John’s Episcopal Church, Aberdeen.

• The construction of the sacrament house may have been part of a wider

reorganisation of the chancel area of the church, and it is tempting to suggest

that the great E window may have been a part of this re-organisation, although

details of this moulding may be more consistent with a 14th or 15th century

date.

Social Overview

• The church is currently used as a recreational attraction. It receives little other

community use.

Spiritual Overview

• As a parish church in use for some six centuries, the site has the potential to

inform our understanding of medieval Christianity, the aspirations of the

rectors, vicars and ministers who served the church and the congregations

who worshipped in it.

• The burial ground was in use until fairly recently, and may still be in use for

occasional burials. People still visit family graves and memorials.

Aesthetic Overview

• The church and burial ground are located in the haughs of the River Don,

amongst arable farmland which adds to the appreciation of this monument.

 

The church has been pointed with a hard cement mortar that give the walls the impression of crazy paving.

 

The sacrament house, the replica crucifixion panel,

3/3 the window jamb are fine architectural details which are aesthetically very striking, and provide some idea of the glories of this once very fine church.

 

• The graveslab of Gilbert de Greenlaw, killed at the Battle of Harlaw, which would originally have been a ledger slab, is a particularly detailed carving of an armed knight.

 

What are the major gaps in understanding of the property?

 

• Do further historical sources or references survive.

 

• Nothing is known about the archaeology and earlier history of this site.

 

The church is an example, although much ruined, of a church which was remodelled in the 16th century.

 

The sacrament house is a particularly fine example of this type of church

furnishing, and the only example which takes the form of a cross.

 

Sacrament houses are physical manifestation of an important aspect of late medieval

Christianity; the veneration and adoration of the Body of Christ in the form of the consecrated host.

 

The church is closely associated with Canon Alexander Galloway, who encouraged a liturgical revival in the diocese in the early 16th century.

 

The site has high archaeological potential, but as a place of burial over centuries so the scope for research-led invasive excavation is not high.

 

Associated Properties

St Fergus’, Dyce, Auchindoir Church, St Machars Cathedral, Kintore Church,

 

Oskar Schindler first arrived in Kraków in October 1939 on Abwehr business and took an apartment the following month. Emilie maintained the apartment in Ostrava and visited Oskar in Kraków at least once a week. In November 1939 he contacted interior decorator Mila Pfefferberg to decorate his new apartment. Her son, Leopold "Poldek" Pfefferberg, soon became one of his contacts for black market trading. They eventually became lifelong friends. Also that November, Schindler was introduced to Itzhak Stern, who was a that time an accountant for Schindler's fellow Abwehr agent Josef "Sepp" Aue, who had taken over Stern's formerly Jewish-owned place of employment as a Treuhander (trustee). Property belonging to Polish Jews, including their possessions, places of business, and homes were seized by the Germans beginning immediately after the invasion, and Jewish citizens were stripped of their civil rights. Schindler showed Stern the balance sheet of a company he was thinking of acquiring, an enamelware manufacturor called Rekord Ltd[a] owned by a consortium of Jewish businessmen that had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year. Stern advised him that rather than running the company as a trusteeship under the auspices of the Haupttreuhandstelle Ost (Main Trustee Office for the East), he should buy or lease the business, as that would give him more freedom from the dictates of the Nazis, including the freedom to hire more Jews. With the financial backing of several Jewish investors, Schindler signed an informal lease agreement on the factory on 13 November 1939 and formalised the arrangement on 15 January 1940. He renamed it Deutsche Emaillewaren-Fabrik (German Enamelware Factory) or DEF, and it soon became known by the nickname "Emalia". He initially acquired a staff of seven Jewish workers (including Abraham Bankier, who helped him manage the company) and 250 non-Jewish Poles. The business employed around 1,750 workers, a thousand of whom were Jews, at its peak in 1944. Schindler also helped run Schlomo Wiener Ltd, a wholesale outfit that sold his enamelware, and was leaseholder of Prokosziner Glashütte, a glass factory.

Schindler's ties with the Abwehr and his connections in the Wehrmacht and its Armaments Inspectorate enabled him to obtain contracts to produce enamel cookware for the military. These connections also later helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death. As time went on, Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe. Bankier, a key black market connection, obtained goods for bribes as well as extra materials for use in the factory. Schindler himself enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and pursued extramarital relationships with his secretary, Viktoria Klonowska, and Eva Kisch Scheuer, a merchant specialising in enamelware from DEF. Emilie Schindler visited for a few months in 1940 and moved to Kraków to live with Oskar in 1941.

 

Initially Schindler was mostly interested in the money-making potential of the business and hired Jews because they were cheaper than Poles – the wages were set by the occupying Nazi regime. Later he began shielding his workers without regard for cost. The status of his factory as a business essential to the war effort became a decisive factor enabling him to help his Jewish workers. Whenever Schindlerjuden (Schindler Jews) were threatened with deportation, he claimed exemptions for them. Wives, children, and even persons with disabilities were claimed to be necessary mechanics and metalworkers. On one occasion, the Gestapo came to Schindler demanding that he hand over a family with forged identity papers. "Three hours after they walked in," Schindler said, "two drunk Gestapo men reeled out of my office without their prisoners and without the incriminating documents they had demanded."

On 1 August 1940 Governor Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within the next two weeks. Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay. Of the 60,000 to 80,000 Jews then living in the city, only 15,000 remained by March 1941. These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto, established in the industrial Podgórze district. Schindler's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory.

 

In fall 1941 the Nazis began transporting Jews out of the ghetto. Most of these were sent to Belzec extermination camp and killed. On 13 March 1943 the ghetto was liquidated and those still fit for work were sent to the new concentration camp at Płaszów. Several thousand not deemed fit for work were sent to extermination camps and killed. Hundreds more were killed on the streets by the Nazis as they cleared out the ghetto. Schindler, aware of the planned action because of his Wehrmacht contacts, had his workers stay at the factory overnight to prevent them coming to any harm. Schindler witnessed the liquidation of the ghetto and was appalled. From that point forward, says Schindlerjude Sol Urbach, Schindler "changed his mind about the Nazis. He decided to get out and to save as many Jews as he could."

 

Schindler was arrested three times on suspicion of black market activities and complicity in embezzlement, as well as breaking the Nuremberg Laws by kissing a Jewish girl. Amon Göth, the commandant of the Płaszów camp, and other SS guards used Jewish property (such as money, jewellery, and works of art) for themselves, although according to law, it belonged to the Reich. Schindler arranged the sale of such items on the black market. None of his arrests led to a trial, primarily because he bribed government officials to avoid further investigation.

 

As the Red Army drew nearer to Auschwitz concentration camp and the other easternmost concentration camps, the SS began evacuating the remaining prisoners westward. Amon Göth's personal secretary, Mietek Pemper, alerted Schindler to the Nazis' plans to close all factories not directly involved with the war effort, including Schindler's enamelware facility. Pemper also persuaded and encouraged Schindler to switch production from enamelware to anti-tank grenades in an effort to save Schindler's Jewish workers. Tipped off to the factory closure, Schindler persuaded the SS officials to allow him to move his 1,200 Jewish workers to Brünnlitz (Czech: Brněnec), in the German-speaking Sudetenland, thus sparing them from certain death in the gas chambers. Mietek Pemper further aided Schindler's efforts by compiling and typing the list of 1,200 Jews—1,000 of Schindler's workers and 200 other inmates—who were sent to Brünnlitz in October 1944.

 

In Brünnlitz, Schindler gained another former Jewish factory, which was scheduled to produce hand grenades and parts for V-2 rockets. It is unclear how much armament was actually produced there; Schindler and some of the workers claimed in the immediate post-war years that there had been no production that would have been useful to the German war effort, and even that some or all of the output had been sabotaged [Wikipedia.org]

I continued on my drive from Kona International Airport to Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historical Park along State Route 19. As I neared Kawaihae, Hawaii, Kohala, the shield volcano comprising the north tip of the Big Island, loomed in the distance.

 

Kohala is the oldest of five volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii. It is believed to have last erupted 120,000 years ago. The volcano is cut by multiple deep gorges, the product of thousands of years of erosion.

 

A dike complex near the volcano's main caldera separates runoff into two major drainage basins, the Waipiʻo and Waimanu valleys, and it maintains the volcano's shallow water table. Kohala supports a complex hydrological cycle that has been exploited to provide a water supply to island residents.

 

Because it is so far from the nearest major landmass, the ecosystem of Kohala has experienced the phenomenon of geographic isolation, resulting in an ecosystem radically different from that of other places. Invasive species introduced by man present a problem to Kohala's ecosystem, as they push native species out of their habitat. There are several initiatives to preserve Kohala's ecosystem. Crops, especially sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), have been harvested on the leeward side of the volano for centuries as well. The northern part of the island is named after the mountain, with two districts named North and South Kohala. King Kamehameha I, the first King of the Kingdom of Hawaii, was born in North Kohala, near Hawi.

 

The volcano is so old that it experienced, and recorded, a reversal of magnetic polarity (a change in the orientation of Earth's magnetic field so that the positions of the North and South poles interchange) that happened 780,000 years ago. Fifty different flow units in the top 140 m (459 ft) of exposed strata in the Pololu section are of normal polarity, indicating that they were deposited within the last 0.78 million years. Radiometric dating ranged mostly from 450,000 to 320,000 years ago, although several pieces strayed lower; this indicated a period of eruptive history at the time.

 

Kohala was devastated by a massive landslide between 250,000 and 300,000 years before present. Debris from the slide was found on the ocean floor up to 130 km (81 mi) away from the volcano. Twenty kilometers wide at the shoreline, the landslide cut back to the summit of the volcano, and is partially, if not largely, responsible for the volcano losing 1,000 m (3,281 ft) in height since then. The famous sea cliffs of the windward Kohala shoreline stand as evidence of the massive geologic disaster, and mark the topmost part of the debris from this ancient landslide. There are also several other unique features found on the volcano, all marks made by the decimating collapse.

 

The volcano's lava flows are sorted into two layers. The Hawi Volcanic layers were deposited in the shield stage of the volcano's life, and the younger Pololu Volcanics were deposited in the volcano's post-shield stage. The rock in the younger Hawi section, which overlies the older Pololu flows, is mostly 260 to 140 thousand years old, and composed mainly of hawaiite and trachyte. The separation between the two layers is not clear; the lowest layers may actually be in the Pololu section, based on their depositional patterns and low phosphorus content. The time intervals separating the two periods of volcanic evolution were extremely brief, something first noted in 1988.

 

The United States Geological Survey has assessed the extinct Kohala as a low-risk area. The volcano is in zone 9 (bottom risk), while the border of the volcano with Mauna Kea is zone 8 (second lowest), as Mauna Kea has not produced lava flows for 4,500 years.

 

Kohala, like other shield volcanoes, has a shallow surface slope due to the low viscosity of the lava flows that formed it. Events during and after its eruptions give the volcano several unique geomorphic features, some possibly resulting from the ancient collapse and landslide. The volcano is shaped like a foot; the northeast coast extends prominently across 20 km (12 mi) of shoreline, differing from the ordinarily smooth, rounded shape of Hawaiian volcanoes.

 

Kohala is dissected by multiple, deeply eroded stream valleys in a west-east alignment, cutting into the flanks of the volcano. The northwestern slope of Kohala has few stream valleys cut into it, the result of the rain shadow effect—the dominant trade winds bring most of the rainfall to the northeastern slope of the volcano.

 

The valleys are more than 800 m (2,625 ft) in depth, among the oldest and largest of which are the Waipiʻo and Waimanu valleys. The volcano stayed active well into the formation of these mountainside valleys, as illustrated by later Pololu lava flows, which separated into two directions and often flowed into Pololu Valley. Recent seafloor mapping seems to show that the valley extends a short way into the seafloor, and it is believed the valley formed from the tumbled-out rock from the landslide.

 

The natural habitats in the Kohala district range across a wide rainfall gradient in a very short distance—from less than 5 in (127 mm) a year on the coast near Kawaihae, to more than 150 in (3,810 mm) a year near the summit of Kohala Mountain, a distance of just 11 mi (18 km). At the coast are remnants of dry forests, and near the summit lies a cloud forest, a type of rainforest that obtains much of its moisture from "cloud drip" in addition to precipitation. These large cloud forests dominate its slopes. This biome is rare, and contains a disproportionate percentage of the world's rare and endemic species. The soil at Kohala is nitrogen-rich, facilitating root growth.

 

The happy combination of small trees, bushes, ferns, vines, and other forms of ground cover keep the soil porous and allow the water to percolate more easily into underground channels. The foliage of the trees breaks the force of rain and prevents the impact of soil by raindrops. A considerable portion of the precipitation is let down to the ground slowly by this three-story cover of trees, bushes, and floor plants and in this manner the rain, falling on a well-forested area, is held back and instead of rushing down to the sea rapidly in the form of destructive floods, is fed gradually to the springs and to the underground artesian basins where it is held for use over a much longer interval.

 

The mountain supports approximately 155 native species of vertebrates, crustaceans, mollusks, and plants. A diverse complexion of fungi, liverwort, and mosses further add to the variety. In fact, up to a quarter of the plants in the forest are mosses and ferns. These work to capture the water from clouds, in turn providing microhabitats for invertebrates and amphibians, and their predators. Estimates on the water capacity of the forest range from 792 US gal (2,998 l) to 3,962 US gal (14,998 l) per hectare.

 

The mountain is also home to several bogs, which exist as breaks in the cloud forests. It is believed that bogs form in low lying areas where clay in the soil prevents proper water drainage, resulting in an accumulation of water that impedes the root systems of woody plants. Kohala's bogs are characterized by sedges, mosses of the genus Sphagnum, and the endangered ʻŌhai (Sesbania tomentosa). Other habitats include rain forest and mesophytic (wet) forests.

 

The same isolation that produced Kohala's unique ecosystem also makes it very vulnerable to invasive species. Alien plants and feral animals are among the greatest threats to the local ecology. Plants like the kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum) and the strawberry guava (Psidium littorale) displace native species. Prior to human settlement, many major organisms such as conifers and rodents never made it onto the island, so the ecosystem never developed defenses against them, leaving Hawaii vulnerable to damage by hoofed animals, rodents, and predation.

 

Kohala's native Hawaiian rain forest has a thick layer of ferns and mosses carpeting the floor, which act as sponges, absorbing water from rain and not letting much of it through to the soil; when feral animals like pigs trample the covering, the forest loses its ability to hold in water effectively, and the result is a severe loss of topsoil, much of which ends up being dumped by streams into the ocean.

 

From 1400 to 1800, the principal crop grown at Kohala was sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), although there is also evidence of yams (Dioscorea sp.), taro (Colocasia esculenta), bananas (Musa hybrids), sugarcane (Saacharum officinarum), and gourds of the family Cucurbitaceae. The optimal rainfall level for the sweet potato lies between 30 to 50 inches (76–130 cm) per year. A combination of factors makes the rainfall at Kohala variable both from location to location and from year to year. In addition, Kohala is buffeted by strong winds, which are directly correlated to soil erosion; ancient farmers utilized a series of earthen embarkments and stone walls to protect their crops. This technique has been shown to reduce wind by at least 20–30 percent.

 

In addition to walls, there are a series of stone paths that divided the farmed area into plots of variable size. These structures are unique because although many people used such systems at the time, Kohala has some of the few to survive. The leeward slopes of Kohala were used for sugar plantations in the late 19th century.Several plantations on the mountain were consolidated into the Kohala Sugar Company by 1937.

 

Kohala supports a very complex hydrological cycle. In the early part of the 20th century, this was exploited by building surface irrigational channels designed to capture water at the higher elevations and distribute it to the then-extensive sugarcane industry. In 1905, after 18 months and the loss of 17 lives, the Kohala Ditch, a vast network of flumes and ditches, measuring 22 mi (35 km) in length, was completed. Its has since come into use by ranches, farms, and homes.

 

The Hawaii County Department of Water Supply relies on streams from Kohala to supply water to the population of the island. With increasing demand, the original surface channels have been supplemented by deep wells designed to channel groundwater for domestic use.

 

The land around Kohala is administered as two districts, North Kohala and South Kohala, of the County of Hawaiʻi. The beaches, parks, golf courses, and resorts in South Kohala are called "the Kohala Coast."

 

King Kamehameha I, the first King of the unified Hawaiian Islands, was born near Upolu Point, the northern tip of Kohala. The site is within Kohala Historical Sites State Monument. The original Kamehameha Statue stands in front of the community center in Kapaʻau, and replicas of the statue are found at Aliʻiōlani Hale in Honolulu, and in the United States Capitol at the Hall of Columns in Washington, D.C.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohala_(mountain)

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_...

     

Seymour Hersh on The Killing of Osama bin Laden, with Christian Lorentzen

www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQNakvgY1CM

 

Hersh at the Brooklyn Public Library:

www.youtube.com/live/IulC6HcCCJU

 

For more Seymour M. Hersh articles published by the London Review of Books, go to:

www.lrb.co.uk/contributors/seymour-m.-hersh

 

www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v37/n10/seymour-m.-hersh/the-kill...

 

The Killing of Osama bin Laden

Vol. 37 No. 10 · 21 May 2015

 

It’s been​ four years since a group of US Navy Seals assassinated Osama bin Laden in a night raid on a high-walled compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. The killing was the high point of Obama’s first term, and a major factor in his re-election. The White House still maintains that the mission was an all-American affair, and that the senior generals of Pakistan’s army and Inter-Services Intelligence agency (ISI) were not told of the raid in advance. This is false, as are many other elements of the Obama administration’s account. The White House’s story might have been written by Lewis Carroll: would bin Laden, target of a massive international manhunt, really decide that a resort town forty miles from Islamabad would be the safest place to live and command al-Qaida’s operations? He was hiding in the open. So America said.

 

The most blatant lie was that Pakistan’s two most senior military leaders – General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, chief of the army staff, and General Ahmed Shuja Pasha, director general of the ISI – were never informed of the US mission. This remains the White House position despite an array of reports that have raised questions, including one by Carlotta Gall in the New York Times Magazine of 19 March 2014. Gall, who spent 12 years as the Times correspondent in Afghanistan, wrote that she’d been told by a ‘Pakistani official’ that Pasha had known before the raid that bin Laden was in Abbottabad. The story was denied by US and Pakistani officials, and went no further. In his book Pakistan: Before and after Osama (2012), Imtiaz Gul, executive director of the Centre for Research and Security Studies, a think tank in Islamabad, wrote that he’d spoken to four undercover intelligence officers who – reflecting a widely held local view – asserted that the Pakistani military must have had knowledge of the operation. The issue was raised again in February, when a retired general, Asad Durrani, who was head of the ISI in the early 1990s, told an al-Jazeera interviewer that it was ‘quite possible’ that the senior officers of the ISI did not know where bin Laden had been hiding, ‘but it was more probable that they did [know]. And the idea was that, at the right time, his location would be revealed. And the right time would have been when you can get the necessary quid pro quo – if you have someone like Osama bin Laden, you are not going to simply hand him over to the United States.’

 

This spring I contacted Durrani and told him in detail what I had learned about the bin Laden assault from American sources: that bin Laden had been a prisoner of the ISI at the Abbottabad compound since 2006; that Kayani and Pasha knew of the raid in advance and had made sure that the two helicopters delivering the Seals to Abbottabad could cross Pakistani airspace without triggering any alarms; that the CIA did not learn of bin Laden’s whereabouts by tracking his couriers, as the White House has claimed since May 2011, but from a former senior Pakistani intelligence officer who betrayed the secret in return for much of the $25 million reward offered by the US, and that, while Obama did order the raid and the Seal team did carry it out, many other aspects of the administration’s account were false.

 

‘When your version comes out – if you do it – people in Pakistan will be tremendously grateful,’ Durrani told me. ‘For a long time people have stopped trusting what comes out about bin Laden from the official mouths. There will be some negative political comment and some anger, but people like to be told the truth, and what you’ve told me is essentially what I have heard from former colleagues who have been on a fact-finding mission since this episode.’ As a former ISI head, he said, he had been told shortly after the raid by ‘people in the “strategic community” who would know’ that there had been an informant who had alerted the US to bin Laden’s presence in Abbottabad, and that after his killing the US’s betrayed promises left Kayani and Pasha exposed.

 

The major US source for the account that follows is a retired senior intelligence official who was knowledgeable about the initial intelligence about bin Laden’s presence in Abbottabad. He also was privy to many aspects of the Seals’ training for the raid, and to the various after-action reports. Two other US sources, who had access to corroborating information, have been longtime consultants to the Special Operations Command. I also received information from inside Pakistan about widespread dismay among the senior ISI and military leadership – echoed later by Durrani – over Obama’s decision to go public immediately with news of bin Laden’s death. The White House did not respond to requests for comment.

 

It began​ with a walk-in. In August 2010 a former senior Pakistani intelligence officer approached Jonathan Bank, then the CIA’s station chief at the US embassy in Islamabad. He offered to tell the CIA where to find bin Laden in return for the reward that Washington had offered in 2001. Walk-ins are assumed by the CIA to be unreliable, and the response from the agency’s headquarters was to fly in a polygraph team. The walk-in passed the test. ‘So now we’ve got a lead on bin Laden living in a compound in Abbottabad, but how do we really know who it is?’ was the CIA’s worry at the time, the retired senior US intelligence official told me.

 

The US initially kept what it knew from the Pakistanis. ‘The fear was that if the existence of the source was made known, the Pakistanis themselves would move bin Laden to another location. So only a very small number of people were read into the source and his story,’ the retired official said. ‘The CIA’s first goal was to check out the quality of the informant’s information.’ The compound was put under satellite surveillance. The CIA rented a house in Abbottabad to use as a forward observation base and staffed it with Pakistani employees and foreign nationals. Later on, the base would serve as a contact point with the ISI; it attracted little attention because Abbottabad is a holiday spot full of houses rented on short leases. A psychological profile of the informant was prepared. (The informant and his family were smuggled out of Pakistan and relocated in the Washington area. He is now a consultant for the CIA.)

 

‘By October the military and intelligence community were discussing the possible military options. Do we drop a bunker buster on the compound or take him out with a drone strike? Perhaps send someone to kill him, single assassin style? But then we’d have no proof of who he was,’ the retired official said. ‘We could see some guy is walking around at night, but we have no intercepts because there’s no commo coming from the compound.’

 

In October, Obama was briefed on the intelligence. His response was cautious, the retired official said. ‘It just made no sense that bin Laden was living in Abbottabad. It was just too crazy. The president’s position was emphatic: “Don’t talk to me about this any more unless you have proof that it really is bin Laden.”’ The immediate goal of the CIA leadership and the Joint Special Operations Command was to get Obama’s support. They believed they would get this if they got DNA evidence, and if they could assure him that a night assault of the compound would carry no risk. The only way to accomplish both things, the retired official said, ‘was to get the Pakistanis on board’.

 

During the late autumn of 2010, the US continued to keep quiet about the walk-in, and Kayani and Pasha continued to insist to their American counterparts that they had no information about bin Laden’s whereabouts. ‘The next step was to figure out how to ease Kayani and Pasha into it – to tell them that we’ve got intelligence showing that there is a high-value target in the compound, and to ask them what they know about the target,’ the retired official said. ‘The compound was not an armed enclave – no machine guns around, because it was under ISI control.’ The walk-in had told the US that bin Laden had lived undetected from 2001 to 2006 with some of his wives and children in the Hindu Kush mountains, and that ‘the ISI got to him by paying some of the local tribal people to betray him.’ (Reports after the raid placed him elsewhere in Pakistan during this period.) Bank was also told by the walk-in that bin Laden was very ill, and that early on in his confinement at Abbottabad, the ISI had ordered Amir Aziz, a doctor and a major in the Pakistani army, to move nearby to provide treatment. ‘The truth is that bin Laden was an invalid, but we cannot say that,’ the retired official said. ‘“You mean you guys shot a cripple? Who was about to grab his AK-47?”’

 

‘It didn’t take long to get the co-operation we needed, because the Pakistanis wanted to ensure the continued release of American military aid, a good percentage of which was anti-terrorism funding that finances personal security, such as bullet-proof limousines and security guards and housing for the ISI leadership,’ the retired official said. He added that there were also under-the-table personal ‘incentives’ that were financed by off-the-books Pentagon contingency funds. ‘The intelligence community knew what the Pakistanis needed to agree – there was the carrot. And they chose the carrot. It was a win-win. We also did a little blackmail. We told them we would leak the fact that you’ve got bin Laden in your backyard. We knew their friends and enemies’ – the Taliban and jihadist groups in Pakistan and Afghanistan – ‘would not like it.’

 

A worrying factor at this early point, according to the retired official, was Saudi Arabia, which had been financing bin Laden’s upkeep since his seizure by the Pakistanis. ‘The Saudis didn’t want bin Laden’s presence revealed to us because he was a Saudi, and so they told the Pakistanis to keep him out of the picture. The Saudis feared if we knew we would pressure the Pakistanis to let bin Laden start talking to us about what the Saudis had been doing with al-Qaida. And they were dropping money – lots of it. The Pakistanis, in turn, were concerned that the Saudis might spill the beans about their control of bin Laden. The fear was that if the US found out about bin Laden from Riyadh, all hell would break out. The Americans learning about bin Laden’s imprisonment from a walk-in was not the worst thing.’

 

Despite their constant public feuding, American and Pakistani military and intelligence services have worked together closely for decades on counterterrorism in South Asia. Both services often find it useful to engage in public feuds ‘to cover their asses’, as the retired official put it, but they continually share intelligence used for drone attacks, and co-operate on covert operations. At the same time, it’s understood in Washington that elements of the ISI believe that maintaining a relationship with the Taliban leadership inside Afghanistan is essential to national security. The ISI’s strategic aim is to balance Indian influence in Kabul; the Taliban is also seen in Pakistan as a source of jihadist shock troops who would back Pakistan against India in a confrontation over Kashmir.

 

Adding to the tension was the Pakistani nuclear arsenal, often depicted in the Western press as an ‘Islamic bomb’ that might be transferred by Pakistan to an embattled nation in the Middle East in the event of a crisis with Israel. The US looked the other way when Pakistan began building its weapons system in the 1970s and it’s widely believed it now has more than a hundred nuclear warheads. It’s understood in Washington that US security depends on the maintenance of strong military and intelligence ties to Pakistan. The belief is mirrored in Pakistan.

 

‘The Pakistani army sees itself as family,’ the retired official said. ‘Officers call soldiers their sons and all officers are “brothers”. The attitude is different in the American military. The senior Pakistani officers believe they are the elite and have got to look out for all of the people, as keepers of the flame against Muslim fundamentalism. The Pakistanis also know that their trump card against aggression from India is a strong relationship with the United States. They will never cut their person-to-person ties with us.’

 

Like all CIA station chiefs, Bank was working undercover, but that ended in early December 2010 when he was publicly accused of murder in a criminal complaint filed in Islamabad by Karim Khan, a Pakistani journalist whose son and brother, according to local news reports, had been killed by a US drone strike. Allowing Bank to be named was a violation of diplomatic protocol on the part of the Pakistani authorities, and it brought a wave of unwanted publicity. Bank was ordered to leave Pakistan by the CIA, whose officials subsequently told the Associated Press he was transferred because of concerns for his safety. The New York Times reported that there was ‘strong suspicion’ the ISI had played a role in leaking Bank’s name to Khan. There was speculation that he was outed as payback for the publication in a New York lawsuit a month earlier of the names of ISI chiefs in connection with the Mumbai terrorist attacks of 2008. But there was a collateral reason, the retired official said, for the CIA’s willingness to send Bank back to America. The Pakistanis needed cover in case their co-operation with the Americans in getting rid of bin Laden became known. The Pakistanis could say: “You’re talking about me? We just kicked out your station chief.”’

 

The bin Laden compound​ was less than two miles from the Pakistan Military Academy, and a Pakistani army combat battalion headquarters was another mile or so away. Abbottabad is less than 15 minutes by helicopter from Tarbela Ghazi, an important base for ISI covert operations and the facility where those who guard Pakistan’s nuclear weapons arsenal are trained. ‘Ghazi is why the ISI put bin Laden in Abbottabad in the first place,’ the retired official said, ‘to keep him under constant supervision.’

 

The risks for Obama were high at this early stage, especially because there was a troubling precedent: the failed 1980 attempt to rescue the American hostages in Tehran. That failure was a factor in Jimmy Carter’s loss to Ronald Reagan. Obama’s worries were realistic, the retired official said. ‘Was bin Laden ever there? Was the whole story a product of Pakistani deception? What about political blowback in case of failure?’ After all, as the retired official said, ‘If the mission fails, Obama’s just a black Jimmy Carter and it’s all over for re-election.’

 

Obama was anxious for reassurance that the US was going to get the right man. The proof was to come in the form of bin Laden’s DNA. The planners turned for help to Kayani and Pasha, who asked Aziz to obtain the specimens. Soon after the raid the press found out that Aziz had been living in a house near the bin Laden compound: local reporters discovered his name in Urdu on a plate on the door. Pakistani officials denied that Aziz had any connection to bin Laden, but the retired official told me that Aziz had been rewarded with a share of the $25 million reward the US had put up because the DNA sample had showed conclusively that it was bin Laden in Abbottabad. (In his subsequent testimony to a Pakistani commission investigating the bin Laden raid, Aziz said that he had witnessed the attack on Abbottabad, but had no knowledge of who was living in the compound and had been ordered by a superior officer to stay away from the scene.)

 

Bargaining continued over the way the mission would be executed. ‘Kayani eventually tells us yes, but he says you can’t have a big strike force. You have to come in lean and mean. And you have to kill him, or there is no deal,’ the retired official said. The agreement was struck by the end of January 2011, and Joint Special Operations Command prepared a list of questions to be answered by the Pakistanis: ‘How can we be assured of no outside intervention? What are the defences inside the compound and its exact dimensions? Where are bin Laden’s rooms and exactly how big are they? How many steps in the stairway? Where are the doors to his rooms, and are they reinforced with steel? How thick?’ The Pakistanis agreed to permit a four-man American cell – a Navy Seal, a CIA case officer and two communications specialists – to set up a liaison office at Tarbela Ghazi for the coming assault. By then, the military had constructed a mock-up of the compound in Abbottabad at a secret former nuclear test site in Nevada, and an elite Seal team had begun rehearsing for the attack.

 

The US had begun to cut back on aid to Pakistan – to ‘turn off the spigot’, in the retired official’s words. The provision of 18 new F-16 fighter aircraft was delayed, and under-the-table cash payments to the senior leaders were suspended. In April 2011 Pasha met the CIA director, Leon Panetta, at agency headquarters. ‘Pasha got a commitment that the United States would turn the money back on, and we got a guarantee that there would be no Pakistani opposition during the mission,’ the retired official said. ‘Pasha also insisted that Washington stop complaining about Pakistan’s lack of co-operation with the American war on terrorism.’ At one point that spring, Pasha offered the Americans a blunt explanation of the reason Pakistan kept bin Laden’s capture a secret, and why it was imperative for the ISI role to remain secret: ‘We needed a hostage to keep tabs on al-Qaida and the Taliban,’ Pasha said, according to the retired official. ‘The ISI was using bin Laden as leverage against Taliban and al-Qaida activities inside Afghanistan and Pakistan. They let the Taliban and al-Qaida leadership know that if they ran operations that clashed with the interests of the ISI, they would turn bin Laden over to us. So if it became known that the Pakistanis had worked with us to get bin Laden at Abbottabad, there would be hell to pay.’

 

At one of his meetings with Panetta, according to the retired official and a source within the CIA, Pasha was asked by a senior CIA official whether he saw himself as acting in essence as an agent for al-Qaida and the Taliban. ‘He answered no, but said the ISI needed to have some control.’ The message, as the CIA saw it, according to the retired official, was that Kayani and Pasha viewed bin Laden ‘as a resource, and they were more interested in their [own] survival than they were in the United States’.

 

A Pakistani with close ties to the senior leadership of the ISI told me that ‘there was a deal with your top guys. We were very reluctant, but it had to be done – not because of personal enrichment, but because all of the American aid programmes would be cut off. Your guys said we will starve you out if you don’t do it, and the okay was given while Pasha was in Washington. The deal was not only to keep the taps open, but Pasha was told there would be more goodies for us.’ The Pakistani said that Pasha’s visit also resulted in a commitment from the US to give Pakistan ‘a freer hand’ in Afghanistan as it began its military draw-down there. ‘And so our top dogs justified the deal by saying this is for our country.’

 

Pasha and Kayani​ were responsible for ensuring that Pakistan’s army and air defence command would not track or engage with the US helicopters used on the mission. The American cell at Tarbela Ghazi was charged with co-ordinating communications between the ISI, the senior US officers at their command post in Afghanistan, and the two Black Hawk helicopters; the goal was to ensure that no stray Pakistani fighter plane on border patrol spotted the intruders and took action to stop them. The initial plan said that news of the raid shouldn’t be announced straightaway. All units in the Joint Special Operations Command operate under stringent secrecy and the JSOC leadership believed, as did Kayani and Pasha, that the killing of bin Laden would not be made public for as long as seven days, maybe longer. Then a carefully constructed cover story would be issued: Obama would announce that DNA analysis confirmed that bin Laden had been killed in a drone raid in the Hindu Kush, on Afghanistan’s side of the border. The Americans who planned the mission assured Kayani and Pasha that their co-operation would never be made public. It was understood by all that if the Pakistani role became known, there would be violent protests – bin Laden was considered a hero by many Pakistanis – and Pasha and Kayani and their families would be in danger, and the Pakistani army publicly disgraced.

 

It was clear to all by this point, the retired official said, that bin Laden would not survive: ‘Pasha told us at a meeting in April that he could not risk leaving bin Laden in the compound now that we know he’s there. Too many people in the Pakistani chain of command know about the mission. He and Kayani had to tell the whole story to the directors of the air defence command and to a few local commanders.

 

‘Of course the guys knew the target was bin Laden and he was there under Pakistani control,’ the retired official said. ‘Otherwise, they would not have done the mission without air cover. It was clearly and absolutely a premeditated murder.’ A former Seal commander, who has led and participated in dozens of similar missions over the past decade, assured me that ‘we were not going to keep bin Laden alive – to allow the terrorist to live. By law, we know what we’re doing inside Pakistan is a homicide. We’ve come to grips with that. Each one of us, when we do these missions, say to ourselves, “Let’s face it. We’re going to commit a murder.”’ The White House’s initial account claimed that bin Laden had been brandishing a weapon; the story was aimed at deflecting those who questioned the legality of the US administration’s targeted assassination programme. The US has consistently maintained, despite widely reported remarks by people involved with the mission, that bin Laden would have been taken alive if he had immediately surrendered.

 

At​ the Abbottabad compound ISI guards were posted around the clock to keep watch over bin Laden and his wives and children. They were under orders to leave as soon as they heard the rotors of the US helicopters. The town was dark: the electricity supply had been cut off on the orders of the ISI hours before the raid began. One of the Black Hawks crashed inside the walls of the compound, injuring many on board. ‘The guys knew the TOT [time on target] had to be tight because they would wake up the whole town going in,’ the retired official said. The cockpit of the crashed Black Hawk, with its communication and navigational gear, had to be destroyed by concussion grenades, and this would create a series of explosions and a fire visible for miles. Two Chinook helicopters had flown from Afghanistan to a nearby Pakistani intelligence base to provide logistical support, and one of them was immediately dispatched to Abbottabad. But because the helicopter had been equipped with a bladder loaded with extra fuel for the two Black Hawks, it first had to be reconfigured as a troop carrier. The crash of the Black Hawk and the need to fly in a replacement were nerve-wracking and time-consuming setbacks, but the Seals continued with their mission. There was no firefight as they moved into the compound; the ISI guards had gone. ‘Everyone in Pakistan has a gun and high-profile, wealthy folks like those who live in Abbottabad have armed bodyguards, and yet there were no weapons in the compound,’ the retired official pointed out. Had there been any opposition, the team would have been highly vulnerable. Instead, the retired official said, an ISI liaison officer flying with the Seals guided them into the darkened house and up a staircase to bin Laden’s quarters. The Seals had been warned by the Pakistanis that heavy steel doors blocked the stairwell on the first and second-floor landings; bin Laden’s rooms were on the third floor. The Seal squad used explosives to blow the doors open, without injuring anyone. One of bin Laden’s wives was screaming hysterically and a bullet – perhaps a stray round – struck her knee. Aside from those that hit bin Laden, no other shots were fired. (The Obama administration’s account would hold otherwise.)

 

‘They knew where the target was – third floor, second door on the right,’ the retired official said. ‘Go straight there. Osama was cowering and retreated into the bedroom. Two shooters followed him and opened up. Very simple, very straightforward, very professional hit.’ Some of the Seals were appalled later at the White House’s initial insistence that they had shot bin Laden in self-defence, the retired official said. ‘Six of the Seals’ finest, most experienced NCOs, faced with an unarmed elderly civilian, had to kill him in self-defence? The house was shabby and bin Laden was living in a cell with bars on the window and barbed wire on the roof. The rules of engagement were that if bin Laden put up any opposition they were authorised to take lethal action. But if they suspected he might have some means of opposition, like an explosive vest under his robe, they could also kill him. So here’s this guy in a mystery robe and they shot him. It’s not because he was reaching for a weapon. The rules gave them absolute authority to kill the guy.’ The later White House claim that only one or two bullets were fired into his head was ‘bullshit’, the retired official said. ‘The squad came through the door and obliterated him. As the Seals say, “We kicked his ass and took his gas.”’

 

After they killed bin Laden, ‘the Seals were just there, some with physical injuries from the crash, waiting for the relief chopper,’ the retired official said. ‘Twenty tense minutes. The Black Hawk is still burning. There are no city lights. No electricity. No police. No fire trucks. They have no prisoners.’ Bin Laden’s wives and children were left for the ISI to interrogate and relocate. ‘Despite all the talk,’ the retired official continued, there were ‘no garbage bags full of computers and storage devices. The guys just stuffed some books and papers they found in his room in their backpacks. The Seals weren’t there because they thought bin Laden was running a command centre for al-Qaida operations, as the White House would later tell the media. And they were not intelligence experts gathering information inside that house.’

 

On a normal assault mission, the retired official said, there would be no waiting around if a chopper went down. ‘The Seals would have finished the mission, thrown off their guns and gear, and jammed into the remaining Black Hawk and di-di-maued’ – Vietnamese slang for leaving in a rush – ‘out of there, with guys hanging out of the doors. They would not have blown the chopper – no commo gear is worth a dozen lives – unless they knew they were safe. Instead they stood around outside the compound, waiting for the bus to arrive.’ Pasha and Kayani had delivered on all their promises.

 

The backroom argument​ inside the White House began as soon as it was clear that the mission had succeeded. Bin Laden’s body was presumed to be on its way to Afghanistan. Should Obama stand by the agreement with Kayani and Pasha and pretend a week or so later that bin Laden had been killed in a drone attack in the mountains, or should he go public immediately? The downed helicopter made it easy for Obama’s political advisers to urge the latter plan. The explosion and fireball would be impossible to hide, and word of what had happened was bound to leak. Obama had to ‘get out in front of the story’ before someone in the Pentagon did: waiting would diminish the political impact.

 

Not everyone agreed. Robert Gates, the secretary of defence, was the most outspoken of those who insisted that the agreements with Pakistan had to be honoured. In his memoir, Duty, Gates did not mask his anger:

 

Before we broke up and the president headed upstairs to tell the American people what had just happened, I reminded everyone that the techniques, tactics and procedures the Seals had used in the bin Laden operation were used every night in Afghanistan ... it was therefore essential that we agree not to release any operational details of the raid. That we killed him, I said, is all we needed to say. Everybody in that room agreed to keep mum on details. That commitment lasted about five hours. The initial leaks came from the White House and CIA. They just couldn’t wait to brag and to claim credit. The facts were often wrong ... Nonetheless the information just kept pouring out. I was outraged and at one point, told [the national security adviser, Tom] Donilon, ‘Why doesn’t everybody just shut the fuck up?’ To no avail.

 

Obama’s speech was put together in a rush, the retired official said, and was viewed by his advisers as a political document, not a message that needed to be submitted for clearance to the national security bureaucracy. This series of self-serving and inaccurate statements would create chaos in the weeks following. Obama said that his administration had discovered that bin Laden was in Pakistan through ‘a possible lead’ the previous August; to many in the CIA the statement suggested a specific event, such as a walk-in. The remark led to a new cover story claiming that the CIA’s brilliant analysts had unmasked a courier network handling bin Laden’s continuing flow of operational orders to al-Qaida. Obama also praised ‘a small team of Americans’ for their care in avoiding civilian deaths and said: ‘After a firefight, they killed Osama bin Laden and took custody of his body.’ Two more details now had to be supplied for the cover story: a description of the firefight that never happened, and a story about what happened to the corpse. Obama went on to praise the Pakistanis: ‘It’s important to note that our counterterrorism co-operation with Pakistan helped lead us to bin Laden and the compound where he was hiding.’ That statement risked exposing Kayani and Pasha. The White House’s solution was to ignore what Obama had said and order anyone talking to the press to insist that the Pakistanis had played no role in killing bin Laden. Obama left the clear impression that he and his advisers hadn’t known for sure that bin Laden was in Abbottabad, but only had information ‘about the possibility’. This led first to the story that the Seals had determined they’d killed the right man by having a six-foot-tall Seal lie next to the corpse for comparison (bin Laden was known to be six foot four); and then to the claim that a DNA test had been performed on the corpse and demonstrated conclusively that the Seals had killed bin Laden. But, according to the retired official, it wasn’t clear from the Seals’ early reports whether all of bin Laden’s body, or any of it, made it back to Afghanistan.

 

Gates wasn’t the only official who was distressed by Obama’s decision to speak without clearing his remarks in advance, the retired official said, ‘but he was the only one protesting. Obama didn’t just double-cross Gates, he double-crossed everyone. This was not the fog of war. The fact that there was an agreement with the Pakistanis and no contingency analysis of what was to be disclosed if something went wrong – that wasn’t even discussed. And once it went wrong, they had to make up a new cover story on the fly.’ There was a legitimate reason for some deception: the role of the Pakistani walk-in had to be protected.

 

The White House press corps was told in a briefing shortly after Obama’s announcement that the death of bin Laden was ‘the culmination of years of careful and highly advanced intelligence work’ that focused on tracking a group of couriers, including one who was known to be close to bin Laden. Reporters were told that a team of specially assembled CIA and National Security Agency analysts had traced the courier to a highly secure million-dollar compound in Abbottabad. After months of observation, the American intelligence community had ‘high confidence’ that a high-value target was living in the compound, and it was ‘assessed that there was a strong probability that [it] was Osama bin Laden’. The US assault team ran into a firefight on entering the compound and three adult males – two of them believed to be the couriers – were slain, along with bin Laden. Asked if bin Laden had defended himself, one of the briefers said yes: ‘He did resist the assault force. And he was killed in a firefight.’

 

The next day John Brennan, then Obama’s senior adviser for counterterrorism, had the task of talking up Obama’s valour while trying to smooth over the misstatements in his speech. He provided a more detailed but equally misleading account of the raid and its planning. Speaking on the record, which he rarely does, Brennan said that the mission was carried out by a group of Navy Seals who had been instructed to take bin Laden alive, if possible. He said the US had no information suggesting that anyone in the Pakistani government or military knew bin Laden’s whereabouts: ‘We didn’t contact the Pakistanis until after all of our people, all of our aircraft were out of Pakistani airspace.’ He emphasised the courage of Obama’s decision to order the strike, and said that the White House had no information ‘that confirmed that bin Laden was at the compound’ before the raid began. Obama, he said, ‘made what I believe was one of the gutsiest calls of any president in recent memory’. Brennan increased the number killed by the Seals inside the compound to five: bin Laden, a courier, his brother, a bin Laden son, and one of the women said to be shielding bin Laden.

 

Asked whether bin Laden had fired on the Seals, as some reporters had been told, Brennan repeated what would become a White House mantra: ‘He was engaged in a firefight with those that entered the area of the house he was in. And whether or not he got off any rounds, I quite frankly don’t know ... Here is bin Laden, who has been calling for these attacks ... living in an area that is far removed from the front, hiding behind women who were put in front of him as a shield ... [It] just speaks to I think the nature of the individual he was.’

 

Gates also objected to the idea, pushed by Brennan and Leon Panetta, that US intelligence had learned of bin Laden’s whereabouts from information acquired by waterboarding and other forms of torture. ‘All of this is going on as the Seals are flying home from their mission. The agency guys know the whole story,’ the retired official said. ‘It was a group of annuitants who did it.’ (Annuitants are retired CIA officers who remain active on contract.) ‘They had been called in by some of the mission planners in the agency to help with the cover story. So the old-timers come in and say why not admit that we got some of the information about bin Laden from enhanced interrogation?’ At the time, there was still talk in Washington about the possible prosecution of CIA agents who had conducted torture.

 

‘Gates told them this was not going to work,’ the retired official said. ‘He was never on the team. He knew at the eleventh hour of his career not to be a party to this nonsense. But State, the agency and the Pentagon had bought in on the cover story. None of the Seals thought that Obama was going to get on national TV and announce the raid. The Special Forces command was apoplectic. They prided themselves on keeping operational security.’ There was fear in Special Operations, the retired official said, that ‘if the true story of the missions leaked out, the White House bureaucracy was going to blame it on the Seals.’

 

The White House’s solution was to silence the Seals. On 5 May, every member of the Seal hit team – they had returned to their base in southern Virginia – and some members of the Joint Special Operations Command leadership were presented with a nondisclosure form drafted by the White House’s legal office; it promised civil penalties and a lawsuit for anyone who discussed the mission, in public or private. ‘The Seals were not happy,’ the retired official said. But most of them kept quiet, as did Admiral William McRaven, who was then in charge of JSOC. ‘McRaven was apoplectic. He knew he was fucked by the White House, but he’s a dyed-in-the-wool Seal, and not then a political operator, and he knew there’s no glory in blowing the whistle on the president. When Obama went public with bin Laden’s death, everyone had to scramble around for a new story that made sense, and the planners were stuck holding the bag.’

 

Within days, some of the early exaggerations and distortions had become obvious and the Pentagon issued a series of clarifying statements. No, bin Laden was not armed when he was shot and killed. And no, bin Laden did not use one of his wives as a shield. The press by and large accepted the explanation that the errors were the inevitable by-product of the White House’s desire to accommodate reporters frantic for details of the mission.

 

One lie that has endured is that the Seals had to fight their way to their target. Only two Seals have made any public statement: No Easy Day, a first-hand account of the raid by Matt Bissonnette, was published in September 2012; and two years later Rob O’Neill was interviewed by Fox News. Both men had resigned from the navy; both had fired at bin Laden. Their accounts contradicted each other on many details, but their stories generally supported the White House version, especially when it came to the need to kill or be killed as the Seals fought their way to bin Laden. O’Neill even told Fox News that he and his fellow Seals thought ‘We were going to die.’ ‘The more we trained on it, the more we realised ... this is going to be a one-way mission.’

 

But the retired official told me that in their initial debriefings the Seals made no mention of a firefight, or indeed of any opposition. The drama and danger portrayed by Bissonnette and O’Neill met a deep-seated need, the retired official said: ‘Seals cannot live with the fact that they killed bin Laden totally unopposed, and so there has to be an account of their courage in the face of danger. The guys are going to sit around the bar and say it was an easy day? That’s not going to happen.’

 

There was another reason to claim there had been a firefight inside the compound, the retired official said: to avoid the inevitable question that would arise from an uncontested assault. Where were bin Laden’s guards? Surely, the most sought-after terrorist in the world would have around-the-clock protection. ‘And one of those killed had to be the courier, because he didn’t exist and we couldn’t produce him. The Pakistanis had no choice but to play along with it.’ (Two days after the raid, Reuters published photographs of three dead men that it said it had purchased from an ISI official. Two of the men were later identified by an ISI spokesman as being the alleged courier and his brother.)

 

Five days​ after the raid the Pentagon press corps was provided with a series of videotapes that were said by US officials to have been taken from a large collection the Seals had removed from the compound, along with as many as 15 computers. Snippets from one of the videos showed a solitary bin Laden looking wan and wrapped in a blanket, watching what appeared to be a video of himself on television. An unnamed official told reporters that the raid produced a ‘treasure trove ... the single largest collection of senior terrorist materials ever’, which would provide vital insights into al-Qaida’s plans. The official said the material showed that bin Laden ‘remained an active leader in al-Qaida, providing strategic, operational and tactical instructions to the group ... He was far from a figurehead [and] continued to direct even tactical details of the group’s management and to encourage plotting’ from what was described as a command-and-control centre in Abbottabad. ‘He was an active player, making the recent operation even more essential for our nation’s security,’ the official said. The information was so vital, he added, that the administration was setting up an inter-agency task force to process it: ‘He was not simply someone who was penning al-Qaida strategy. He was throwing operational ideas out there and he was also specifically directing other al-Qaida members.’

 

These claims were fabrications: there wasn’t much activity for bin Laden to exercise command and control over. The retired intelligence official said that the CIA’s internal reporting shows that since bin Laden moved to Abbottabad in 2006 only a handful of terrorist attacks could be linked to the remnants of bin Laden’s al-Qaida. ‘We were told at first,’ the retired official said, ‘that the Seals produced garbage bags of stuff and that the community is generating daily intelligence reports out of this stuff. And then we were told that the community is gathering everything together and needs to translate it. But nothing has come of it. Every single thing they have created turns out not to be true. It’s a great hoax – like the Piltdown man.’ The retired official said that most of the materials from Abbottabad were turned over to the US by the Pakistanis, who later razed the building. The ISI took responsibility for the wives and children of bin Laden, none of whom was made available to the US for questioning.

 

‘Why create the treasure trove story?’ the retired official said. ‘The White House had to give the impression that bin Laden was still operationally important. Otherwise, why kill him? A cover story was created – that there was a network of couriers coming and going with memory sticks and instructions. All to show that bin Laden remained important.’

 

In July 2011, the Washington Post published what purported to be a summary of some of these materials. The story’s contradictions were glaring. It said the documents had resulted in more than four hundred intelligence reports within six weeks; it warned of unspecified al-Qaida plots; and it mentioned arrests of suspects ‘who are named or described in emails that bin Laden received’. The Post didn’t identify the suspects or reconcile that detail with the administration’s previous assertions that the Abbottabad compound had no internet connection. Despite their claims that the documents had produced hundreds of reports, the Post also quoted officials saying that their main value wasn’t the actionable intelligence they contained, but that they enabled ‘analysts to construct a more comprehensive portrait of al-Qaida’.

 

In May 2012, the Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, a private research group, released translations it had made under a federal government contract of 175 pages of bin Laden documents. Reporters found none of the drama that had been touted in the days after the raid. Patrick Cockburn wrote about the contrast between the administration’s initial claims that bin Laden was the ‘spider at the centre of a conspiratorial web’ and what the translations actually showed: that bin Laden was ‘delusional’ and had ‘limited contact with the outside world outside his compound’.

 

The retired official disputed the authenticity of the West Point materials: ‘There is no linkage between these documents and the counterterrorism centre at the agency. No intelligence community analysis. When was the last time the CIA: 1) announced it had a significant intelligence find; 2) revealed the source; 3) described the method for processing the materials; 4) revealed the time-line for production; 5) described by whom and where the analysis was taking place, and 6) published the sensitive results before the information had been acted on? No agency professional would support this fairy tale.’

 

In June​ 2011, it was reported in the New York Times, the Washington Post and all over the Pakistani press that Amir Aziz had been held for questioning in Pakistan; he was, it was said, a CIA informant who had been spying on the comings and goings at the bin Laden compound. Aziz was released, but the retired official said that US intelligence was unable to learn who leaked the highly classified information about his involvement with the mission. Officials in Washington decided they ‘could not take a chance that Aziz’s role in obtaining bin Laden’s DNA also would become known’. A sacrificial lamb was needed, and the one chosen was Shakil Afridi, a 48-year-old Pakistani doctor and sometime CIA asset, who had been arrested by the Pakistanis in late May and accused of assisting the agency. ‘We went to the Pakistanis and said go after Afridi,’ the retired official said. ‘We had to cover the whole issue of how we got the DNA.’ It was soon reported that the CIA had organised a fake vaccination programme in Abbottabad with Afridi’s help in a failed attempt to obtain bin Laden’s DNA. Afridi’s legitimate medical operation was run independently of local health authorities, was well financed and offered free vaccinations against hepatitis B. Posters advertising the programme were displayed throughout the area. Afridi was later accused of treason and sentenced to 33 years in prison because of his ties to an extremist. News of the CIA-sponsored programme created widespread anger in Pakistan, and led to the cancellation of other international vaccination programmes that were now seen as cover for American spying.

 

The retired official said that Afridi had been recruited long before the bin Laden mission as part of a separate intelligence effort to get information about suspected terrorists in Abbottabad and the surrounding area. ‘The plan was to use vaccinations as a way to get the blood of terrorism suspects in the villages.’ Afridi made no attempt to obtain DNA from the residents of the bin Laden compound. The report that he did so was a hurriedly put together ‘CIA cover story creating “facts”’ in a clumsy attempt to protect Aziz and his real mission. ‘Now we have the consequences,’ the retired official said. ‘A great humanitarian project to do something meaningful for the peasants has been compromised as a cynical hoax.’ Afridi’s conviction was overturned, but he remains in prison on a murder charge.

 

In his address​ announcing the raid, Obama said that after killing bin Laden the Seals ‘took custody of his body’. The statement created a problem. In the initial plan it was to be announced a week or so after the fact that bin Laden was killed in a drone strike somewhere in the mountains on the Pakistan/Afghanistan border and that his remains had been identified by DNA testing. But with Obama’s announcement of his killing by the Seals everyone now expected a body to be produced. Instead, reporters were told that bin Laden’s body had been flown by the Seals to an American military airfield in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, and then straight to the USS Carl Vinson, a supercarrier on routine patrol in the North Arabian Sea. Bin Laden had then been buried at sea, just hours after his death. The press corps’s only sceptical moments at John Brennan’s briefing on 2 May were to do with the burial. The questions were short, to the point, and rarely answered. ‘When was the decision made that he would be buried at sea if killed?’ ‘Was this part of the plan all along?’ ‘Can you just tell us why that was a good idea?’ ‘John, did you consult a Muslim expert on that?’ ‘Is there a visual recording of this burial?’ When this last question was asked, Jay Carney, Obama’s press secretary, came to Brennan’s rescue: ‘We’ve got to give other people a chance here.’

 

‘We thought the best way to ensure that his body was given an appropriate Islamic burial,’ Brennan said, ‘was to take those actions that would allow us to do that burial at sea.’ He said ‘appropriate specialists and experts’ were consulted, and that the US military was fully capable of carrying out the burial ‘consistent with Islamic law’. Brennan didn’t mention that Muslim law calls for the burial service to be conducted in the presence of an imam, and there was no suggestion that one happened to be on board the Carl Vinson.

 

In a reconstruction of the bin Laden operation for Vanity Fair, Mark Bowden, who spoke to many senior administration officials, wrote that bin Laden’s body was cleaned and photographed at Jalalabad. Further procedures necessary for a Muslim burial were performed on the carrier, he wrote, ‘with bin Laden’s body being washed again and wrapped in a white shroud. A navy photographer recorded the burial in full sunlight, Monday morning, May 2.’ Bowden described the photos:

 

One frame shows the body wrapped in a weighted shroud. The next shows it lying diagonally on a chute, feet overboard. In the next frame the body is hitting the water. In the next it is visible just below the surface, ripples spreading outward. In the last frame there are only circular ripples on the surface. The mortal remains of Osama bin Laden were gone for good.

 

Bowden was careful not to claim that he had actually seen the photographs he described, and he recently told me he hadn’t seen them: ‘I’m always disappointed when I can’t look at something myself, but I spoke with someone I trusted who said he had seen them himself and described them in detail.’ Bowden’s statement adds to the questions about the alleged burial at sea, which has provoked a flood of Freedom of Information Act requests, most of which produced no information. One of them sought access to the photographs. The Pentagon responded that a search of all available records had found no evidence that any photographs had been taken of the burial. Requests on other issues related to the raid were equally unproductive. The reason for the lack of response became clear after the Pentagon held an inquiry into allegations that the Obama administration had provided access to classified materials to the makers of the film Zero Dark Thirty. The Pentagon report, which was put online in June 2013, noted that Admiral McRaven had ordered the files on the raid to be deleted from all military computers and moved to the CIA, where they would be shielded from FOIA requests by the agency’s ‘operational exemption’.

 

McRaven’s action meant that outsiders could not get access to the Carl Vinson’s unclassified logs. Logs are sacrosanct in the navy, and separate ones are kept for air operations, the deck, the engineering department, the medical office, and for command information and control. They show the sequence of events day by day aboard the ship; if there has been a burial at sea aboard the Carl Vinson, it would have been recorded.

 

There wasn’t any gossip about a burial among the Carl Vinson’s sailors. The carrier concluded its six-month deployment in June 2011. When the ship docked at its home base in Coronado, California, Rear Admiral Samuel Perez, commander of the Carl Vinson carrier strike group, told reporters that the crew had been ordered not to talk about the burial. Captain Bruce Lindsey, skipper of the Carl Vinson, told reporters he was unable to discuss it. Cameron Short, one of the crew of the Carl Vinson, told the Commercial-News of Danville, Illinois, that the crew had not been told anything about the burial. ‘All he knows is what he’s seen on the news,’ the newspaper reported.

 

The Pentagon did release a series of emails to the Associated Press. In one of them, Rear Admiral Charles Gaouette reported that the service followed ‘traditional procedures for Islamic burial’, and said none of the sailors on board had been permitted to observe the proceedings. But there was no indication of who washed and wrapped the body, or of which Arabic speaker conducted the service.

 

Within weeks of the raid, I had been told by two longtime consultants to Special Operations Command, who have access to current intelligence, that the funeral aboard the Carl Vinson didn’t take place. One consultant told me that bin Laden’s remains were photographed and identified after being flown back to Afghanistan. The consultant added: ‘At that point, the CIA took control of the body. The cover story was that it had been flown to the Carl Vinson.’ The second consultant agreed that there had been ‘no burial at sea’. He added that ‘the killing of bin Laden was political theatre designed to burnish Obama’s military credentials ... The Seals should have expected the political grandstanding. It’s irresistible to a politician. Bin Laden became a working asset.’ Early this year, speaking again to the second consultant, I returned to the burial at sea. The consultant laughed and said: ‘You mean, he didn’t make it to the water?’

 

The retired official said there had been another complication: some members of the Seal team had bragged to colleagues and others that they had torn bin Laden’s body to pieces with rifle fire. The remains, including his head, which had only a few bullet holes in it, were thrown into a body bag and, during the helicopter flight back to Jalalabad, some body parts were tossed out over the Hindu Kush mountains – or so the Seals claimed. At the time, the retired official said, the Seals did not think their mission would be made public by Obama within a few hours: ‘If the president had gone ahead with the cover story, there would have been no need to have a funeral within hours of the killing. Once the cover story was blown, and the death was made public, the White House had a serious “Where’s the body?” problem. The world knew US forces had killed bin Laden in Abbottabad. Panic city. What to do? We need a “functional body” because we have to be able to say we identified bin Laden via a DNA analysis. It would be navy officers who came up with the “burial at sea” idea. Perfect. No body. Honourable burial following sharia law. Burial is made public in great detail, but Freedom of Information documents confirming the burial are denied for reasons of “national security”. It’s the classic unravelling of a poorly constructed cover story – it solves an immediate problem but, given the slightest inspection, there is no back-up support. There never was a plan, initially, to take the body to sea, and no burial of bin Laden at sea took place.’ The retired official said that if the Seals’ first accounts are to be believed, there wouldn’t have been much left of bin Laden to put into the sea in any case.

 

It was inevitable​ that the Obama administration’s lies, misstatements and betrayals would create a backlash. ‘We’ve had a four-year lapse in co-operation,’ the retired official said. ‘It’s taken that long for the Pakistanis to trust us again in the military-to-military counterterrorism relationship – while terrorism was rising all over the world ... They felt Obama sold them down the river. They’re just now coming back because the threat from Isis, which is now showing up there, is a lot greater and the bin Laden event is far enough away to enable someone like General Durrani to come out and talk about it.’ Generals Pasha and Kayani have retired and both are reported to be under investigation for corruption during their time in office.

 

The Senate Intelligence Committee’s long-delayed report on CIA torture, released last December, documented repeated instances of official lying, and suggested that the CIA’s knowledge of bin Laden’s courier was sketchy at best and predated its use of waterboarding and other forms of torture. The report led to international headlines about brutality and waterboarding, along with gruesome details about rectal feeding tubes, ice baths and threats to rape or murder family members of detainees who were believed to be withholding information. Despite the bad publicity, the report was a victory for the CIA. Its major finding – that the use of torture didn’t lead to discovering the truth – had already been the subject of public debate for more than a decade. Another key finding – that the torture conducted was more brutal than Congress had been told – was risible, given the extent of public reporting and published exposés by former interrogators and retired CIA officers. The report depicted tortures that were obviously contrary to international law as violations of rules or ‘inappropriate activities’ or, in some cases, ‘management failures’. Whether the actions described constitute war crimes was not discussed, and the report did not suggest that any of the CIA interrogators or their superiors should be investigated for criminal activity. The agency faced no meaningful consequences as a result of the report.

 

The retired official told me that the CIA leadership had become experts in derailing serious threats from Congress: ‘They create something that is horrible but not that bad. Give them something that sounds terrible. “Oh my God, we were shoving food up a prisoner’s ass!” Meanwhile, they’re not telling the committee about murders, other war crimes, and secret prisons like we still have in Diego Garcia. The goal also was to stall it as long as possible, which they did.’

 

The main theme of the committee’s 499-page executive summary is that the CIA lied systematically about the effectiveness of its torture programme in gaining intelligence that would stop future terrorist attacks in the US. The lies included some vital details about the uncovering of an al-Qaida operative called Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, who was said to be the key al-Qaida courier, and the subsequent tracking of him to Abbottabad in early 2011. The agency’s alleged intelligence, patience and skill in finding al-Kuwaiti became legend after it was dramatised in Zero Dark Thirty.

 

The Senate report repeatedly raised questions about the quality and reliability of the CIA’s intelligence about al-Kuwaiti. In 2005 an internal CIA report on the hunt for bin Laden noted that ‘detainees provide few actionable leads, and we have to consider the possibility that they are creating fictitious characters to distract us or to absolve themselves of direct knowledge about bin Ladin [sic].’ A CIA cable a year later stated that ‘we have had no success in eliciting actionable intelligence on bin Laden’s location from any detainees.’ The report also highlighted several instances of CIA officers, including Panetta, making false statements to Congress and the public about the value of ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’ in the search for bin Laden’s couriers.

 

Obama today is not facing re-election as he was in the spring of 2011. His principled stand on behalf of the proposed nuclear agreement with Iran says much, as does his decision to operate without the support of the conservative Republicans in Congress. High-level lying nevertheless remains the modus operandi of US policy, along with secret prisons, drone attacks, Special Forces night raids, bypassing the chain of command, and cutting out those who might say no.

World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War - World War III, Nuclear War, Space War (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 revised version, multilingual comparison of the global network version) once the edition came out, immediately got the praise of readers and netizens around the world. In order to meet the needs of hundreds of millions of people, the author has revised and republished it for the benefit of readers and netizens.

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Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue de la version du réseau mondial) une fois l’édition sortie, a immédiatement reçu les éloges des lecteurs et des internautes du monde entier. Afin de répondre aux besoins de centaines de millions de personnes, l’auteur l’a révisé et republié au profit des lecteurs et des internautes.

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World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War--The Third World War, Nuclear War, Space War

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In the 20th century, science and technology have been highly developed, social productivity has advanced by leaps and bounds, and the modern civilization and free rational cognitive perception of human society have gradually developed and changed. Human society has opened up a new planetary civilization, which is an inevitable trend of history. Of course, today's human society also It presents various crises and challenges, clashes of civilizations, geopolitics, territorial disputes, spheres of influence, fetishism, political and economic systems, economic models, etc. as well as climate change, resource environment, population growth, wealth gap, plague Viruses, natural disasters, religious beliefs, racial discrimination, vicious competition, even armed war or nuclear war, etc. Countries such as the United States, China, Russia, Europe, India and Pakistan are among them. Without contradiction and competition, there would be no world, and similarly, without peace and compromise There will be no world if you share wealth with each other. Take one step or two steps back, and the sky will be vast. Nuclear weapons are very powerful and worth mentioning. However, the competition between countries and ethnic groups, in the final analysis, mainly lies in economic and political civilization, and of course also includes land, population, resources, etc. Culture, technology, military, influence, sphere of influence, etc. War is just an important unconventional form, just like animal fighting and killing. However, whether animal groups fight inside or outside, there is also considerable compromise and sharing. Otherwise, Animal species groups will also completely disappear or perish. The same is true for the evolutionary history of human society. There is no doubt about it. Whether you are a politician, a military strategist, or a philosopher, a thinker or a sociologist, Anthropologists, no exception.

After World War II, the world formed a Cold War situation: the two major military organizations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact Organization (Warsaw Pact), began to expand their arms and prepare for war. The United States and the Soviet Union launched an arms race and had nuclear weapons reserves. Vulnerable states will rely on the military protection of great powers as a way to maintain their own security.

The phrase World War III began to appear in communiqués between leaders of various countries. With a large number of high-tech applications in the military field, especially the extensive development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, people have provided a great space for the imagination of the third world war: some people think that the third world war will be a scale that spreads all over the world. The world's nuclear war, this war will become the greatest catastrophe in the history of human civilization. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was once considered the closest crisis in human history to World War III: a confrontation between two powers with unprecedented nuclear power that lasted for decades in the Caribbean Sea. Although the incident was resolved smoothly, full-scale nuclear war has since become a nickname for World War III.

With the development of the world, more and more people believe that the third world war will become a historical term that will never appear, or a war that will not happen in a visible period of time, all because of the balance of power between the United States and the Soviet Union. And implement a policy of mutually assured destruction so that war does not break out.

 

The Third World War is an imaginary large-scale war in the next world. During the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, if a war broke out between the two sides, its seriousness could be called the Third World War, but fortunately, both sides tried their best to War was avoided, and neither side broke out until the end of the Cold War. So far, the three wars have only been speculated and imagined, and they have not broken out, but once they break out, they will seriously affect everyone on the earth. After the great ordeal of the Cold War, the Soviet Union yearned for peace and opposed war.

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With a large number of high-tech applications in the military field, especially the extensive development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, people have provided great space for the imagination of the third world war - some people believe that the third world war will be a large-scale The nuclear war in the world will become the greatest catastrophe in the history of human civilization. Among them, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was once considered to be the crisis closest to the Third World War in human history - the confrontation between two great powers with unprecedented nuclear forces in the Caribbean Sea lasted for dozens of days, bringing the possibility of war to the ground. Raised to unprecedented heights.

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From different perspectives, there are many reasons for the outbreak of the Third World War, and the government and the people have different views, such as the war launched by the former Soviet Union against the West, the rise of China, and the war in the Middle East.

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There are many different reasons for the outbreak of wars, and the camps are also different. It is believed that some countries will use the atomic bomb, and the war may extend into space. The war broke out because, for example, the United States suppressed a rising China. Military conflict between India, Vietnam, the Philippines and China, Israel and Middle East countries, Middle East or Iran and European and American countries, North Korea nuclear attack on South Korea or Japan, China and South Korea discord, military conflict broke out, the United States returned to the Asia-Pacific region affected by Asia State conflict, etc. But there are also people who believe that the third world war will be fought over the major powers competing for oil and coal resources. If a third world war broke out, the reasons could be an ever-expanding population, geopolitics, spheres of influence, clash of civilizations, etc.

Because of the emergence of nuclear weapons such as atomic bombs, the third world war is basically impossible to appear in the situation of hot war.

There is a global nuclear war on the earth, and the world has launched atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs with a nuclear yield of more than 20 billion tons of TNT. Complete

Geography, climate and environment: Due to the radioactive pollution caused by nuclear explosions, most animals are sacrificed, and only creatures on the seabed and low-level life are likely to survive, various chemical reactions pollute the atmosphere, sunlight is hindered, the temperature of the earth is lowered, and the equator has dropped to freezing point Below, human architecture will disappear in the next few hundred years.

Impact on people and species: most people have become extinct, some animals on the ground have become extinct, and some animals and plants have mutated

  

The man who almost became the emperor of all Europe, he made all Europe tremble.

Guderian (Germany) the father of the tank.

 

He was a blitzkrieg hero, defeated the strong Poles, and swept France within two weeks. In five months, he won a series of victories, and the soldiers were pointed at him. up to two million people.

 

Julius Caesar (Ancient Rome) Symbol of ancient Rome.

 

He fought in Gaul, and he competed with Pompey for the hegemony. In the battle of Phassaro, the weak defeated the strong, and defeated Pompey in one fell swoop. After that, no one could match the enemy. Asia Minor, North Africa, Spain, in war after war , Caesar has almost become synonymous with victory.

 

Khalid (Arabian) Sword of Allah.

 

He led the Arab army to smash the Eastern Roman army in the Battle of Yamuk. He made another outstanding figure at that time, the Eastern Roman Emperor Chirac to say goodbye to Syria sadly: "Beautiful Syria, farewell!"

 

Suvorov (Russia) the first player in Russian history.

 

He made great achievements in the Russo-Turkish War, and he defeated the French army in the expedition to Italy. He was the only commander in Napoleon's era who could rival Napoleon. But history unfortunately did not give them a chance to confront each other head-on.

 

Hannibal (Carthage) Lone Hero.

 

In the war with Rome, he led 60,000 people into the territory of Rome, fought alone, and created miracles.

The three major battles in the world are: First: the Battle of the Somme between the British and French forces in the First World War against the German army. It lasted half a year. The two sides invested more than 1.5 million troops, and the number of casualties reached an astonishing 1.3 million. The battle was fought by the British and French forces. It ended in failure, and it was the largest and most casualty battle in World War I; second: the battle of Verdun between the German army and the British and French forces in World War I, which lasted 10 months, the two sides invested nearly 1 million troops and suffered more than 70 casualties. 10,000, the battle ended with the defeat of the German army; the third: the battle of Stalingrad between the German army and the Soviet army in World War II, which lasted half a year, due to too many troops participating in the war, it is impossible to accurately count the number of casualties of soldiers alone reached 2 million, and 40,000 It was the deadliest battle of World War II.

"The Art of War"

"Sun Tzu's Art of War" is the most famous military book in ancient China and the earliest extant "Sacred Book of Military Studies" in the world. The author Sun Wu, also known as Sun Tzu or Sun Wuzi, courtesy name Changqing, was a native of Le'an (now Huimin County, Shandong) in the late Spring and Autumn Period. Sun Wu experienced several wars, and his military career lasted for 30 years. "Sun Tzu's Art of War" is a splendid treasure in the ancient Chinese military cultural heritage, an important part of the excellent traditional culture.

 

"Theory of War"

"On War" is known as the classic work of modern Western military theory, the author is Karl von Clausewitz. "Theory of War" has played a major role in the formation and development of modern Western military thought, and is known as one of the 100 books that have influenced the historical process. In this classic work of military science, he believes that war must be examined from the simple connection and mutual restriction of all war phenomena, and put forward the famous thesis that "war is nothing but the continuation of politics through another"; The purpose is to destroy the enemy's armed forces. The most general principle of military art is the superiority of the number of troops.

  

"Grand Strategy"

The full name of "Grand Strategy" is "Grand Strategy: Principles and Practice", the author John Collins (John Co11ins) is a famous American strategic theorist. book. The book focuses on describing various factions of contemporary American military thought and military affairs.

"The Influence of Sea Power on History"

"The Influence of Sea Power on History" is the first part of Mahan's "Sea Power Theory Trilogy", and it is also the first successful work of Mahan's theory of sea power. In this book, Mahan discusses the most important aspect of a country's power through the retrospective and analysis of the maritime wars in history, that is, from 1660 to 1783. Mahan's Sea Power Theory.

 

"Strategy"

"Strategy" by Reed Hart. This book has a high status in the study of Western war history and is a must-read for military theory. Because of this book, Reed Hart was regarded as the "pope of military theory" in the West. The author makes a detailed analysis using rich historical materials. "Strategy Theory" has high historical value. Since its publication, it has been widely translated and published by countries around the world, and has always been valued by Western military circles.

 

"Air Dominance"

"Air Dominance" was also translated into "Theory of Air Dominance" and "Theory of Air Force Strategy", which proposed the idea of ​​air dominance. Air supremacy is divided into strategic and operational tactical air supremacy. Mastery of the air can have a major impact on the outcome of a war.

 

"The Science of Winning"

"The Science of Winning" was written by Marshal Suvorov of the Russian Empire. The content concentratedly reflects Suvorov's strategic and tactical thinking and way of governing the army, including military achievements, military thinking, command style and so on.

"Military Strategy"

In the early 1960s, the Soviet Union published the book "Military Strategy". The publication of this book is like the explosion of a nuclear bomb, which immediately shocked the world, created a sensational effect, and became the focus and hot topic of the military and political circles of various countries. The surname Sokolovsky in the author Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky means "eagle". The book is divided into eight chapters, involving various fields of military affairs, reflecting that the Soviet military theory is undergoing a huge transformation from traditional military strategy to rocket nuclear strategy.

 

Introduction to the Art of War

"An Introduction to the Art of War" by A. H. Jomini. This book is divided into seven chapters and forty-seven sections.

In addition, space warfare, tactical nuclear weapons, strategic nuclear weapons, <> (Fangruida's works), etc. There are also many other works that are well-known all over the world. Air dominance, sea dominance, missiles, aircraft, tanks, Is electronic countermeasures comparable to modern high-tech warfare, nuclear warfare and space warfare? The answer is no. Will there be crooks and lunatics in the world? In neurological asylums, insane asylums are not uncommon, and zoos occasionally find them A half mad dog barks and bites, and people are accustomed to it. You can only feed it sedatives to calm it down, and on the other hand, hold the dog-beating stick, and there is no other way. Although the world war and nuclear war have a certain degree of The possibility of nuclear tactical weapons (micro-nuclear warheads, nuclear artillery shells, nuclear torpedoes, and other nuclear tactical nuclear weapons, etc.) may occur on one side. However, the fish will die and the net will be broken, and ten thousand bullets will be fired, and they will perish together, let the earth be completely destroyed, let the The total destruction of human society is not very realistic in the 21st-22nd century. If the earth does not exist, then everything becomes meaningless. Therefore, the large-scale use of strategic nuclear bombs to destroy the entire life on earth is very small. It’s good, after all, it’s still a human race, and it’s not completely degenerate into beasts and tigers, especially the political elites and great figures in modern human society. Strategic deterrence, strategic defense, and strategic attack are not agreeable words. Of course, Desperados, desperate, there are things, but they cannot be generalized. Are there really madmen and sages and gods in the world, hundreds of trillions of atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs are launched, the earth, the moon, Mars, Jupiter, the sun, the Milky Way, black holes, The Milky Way, ...... is fleeting, isn't this the myth of the Big Bang that created the universe? This is probably only known to God and Zeus.

 

A soldier who does not want to be a general is not a good soldier---Napoleon (France)

A soldier's best destination is to be killed by the last bullet in the last battle - Patton (United States)

Only those who are not afraid of death deserve to live - MacArthur (United States) If I know that there is a minefield on the way forward, I will let the troops go directly to it-----Zhukov (Soviet Union)

Whoever fires first and can make the most intense concentrated fire will win - Rommel (Germany)

"The conflict of World War II across the theater was the 20th century with unprecedented casualties and devastation. An estimated 80 million to 120 million people died in the war.

 

Affected countries First World War Second World War

Deaths 20 million 72-100 million

Injured 20 million 35 million

Conscription 70 million 110 million

Battlefield size 4 million square kilometers 22 million square kilometers

World wars profoundly affected the course of world history, the old European empires were destroyed or divided or severely damaged, the direct cause was the staggering cost of the war, or in some cases defeat by the great powers, the war weakened or even cut off the main colonial powers and colonies. The connection made the colonies operate in a semi-autonomous state. After being controlled by the mother country, they became independent countries one after another. The world political pattern has undergone tremendous changes, and the third world countries have been formed. Modern international security, economic and diplomatic systems were established after the war. Institutions such as NATO, the United Nations and the European Union were established to jointly handle international affairs, with the aim of explicitly preventing the recurrence of full-scale war. War also dramatically changed everyday life. Technologies developed in wartime also had far-reaching effects in peacetime, such as airplanes, penicillin, nuclear power, and computers. "(quoted from Wiki)

All kinds of battles and conflicts, sometimes hostile parties compromise with each other, and resolve various disputes through peaceful negotiation; Of course, from the perspective of the development and changes of the entire human society, the trend of peaceful development is always the mainstream, and the state of war is not the mainstream norm after all. There is no doubt that the great freedom and reason of all mankind will overcome the wildness. Otherwise, human society will collapse. It will be completely destroyed. Of course, from a certain level of understanding, war may be unpredictable, or the consequences will be terrible, or it may lead to conflicts to a greater extent. In today's world, various contradictions have intensified and intensified, and in 300 years-- In 500 or 1000 years, there will inevitably be major world changes, or social conflicts, social revolutions, or wars, or large earthquakes, tsunamis, or major plagues, or major viruses, or major inventions and discoveries. , (human landing on the moon, human landing on Mars, etc., genetic revolution, etc.), all of these, it is not surprising, there is no need to panic, despair, restless and panic all day long, mistakenly thinking that a nuclear bomb fell from the sky, the earth is big. Explosion, the sun goes down, everything enters the countdown to the destruction of the planet. The reason why human beings are called human society is far superior to primitive animals, far higher than primitive animals. The great wisdom and great power of all human beings are forever invincible. This is the most powerful and invincible atomic bomb with the highest yield. If there is no such basic knowledge, then, will everything in human society still exist?

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World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War--The Third World War, Nuclear War, Space War , a great scientist, philosopher, thinker, sociologist, anthropologist, cosmologist, military engineer, nuclear energy expert, and world-renowned. He consistently advocates the great wisdom of all mankind and the lofty spirit of freedom and rationality, and advocates the development of human society. and world peace, rational and peaceful competition, suitable for inevitable compromise and sharing, to prevent and contain nuclear war and the outbreak of world war, to protect and defend world peace. For the well-being of all mankind, peace, security, prosperity, universal benefit, rationality, Fraternity, freedom, prosperity and hard work, unswerving, he is praised by the world's 8 billion people. Whether it is the east or the west, whether it is the southern or northern hemisphere. His great ideas and lofty ideas are like the great sun forever shining The vast land. This is the core content of this article. (Bick November 2021, revised in 2022)

  

Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue version du réseau mondial)

Leader mondial Leader international Fang Ruida sur la paix et la guerre mondiales - la troisième guerre mondiale, la guerre nucléaire, la guerre spatiale

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Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue de la version du réseau mondial) une fois l’édition sortie, a immédiatement reçu les éloges des lecteurs et des internautes du monde entier. Afin de répondre aux besoins de centaines de millions de personnes, l’auteur l’a révisé et republié au profit des lecteurs et des internautes.

Bick. S

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Au 20ème siècle, la science et la technologie ont été très développées, la productivité sociale a progressé à pas de géant, et la civilisation moderne et la perception cognitive rationnelle libre de la société humaine se sont progressivement développées et modifiées.La société humaine a ouvert une nouvelle civilisation planétaire, qui est une tendance inévitable de l'histoire.Bien sûr, la société humaine d'aujourd'hui aussi Il présente diverses crises et défis, chocs de civilisations, géopolitique, conflits territoriaux, sphères d'influence, fétichisme, systèmes politiques et économiques, modèles économiques, etc. changement climatique, environnement des ressources, croissance démographique, écart de richesse, peste Virus, catastrophes naturelles, croyances religieuses, discrimination raciale, concurrence vicieuse, voire guerre armée ou guerre nucléaire, etc. Pays tels que les États-Unis, la Chine, la Russie, l'Europe, l'Inde et le Pakistan sont parmi eux. Sans contradiction et concurrence, il n'y aurait pas de monde, et de même, sans paix et compromis Il n'y aura pas de monde si vous partagez la richesse les uns avec les autres. Faites un pas ou deux pas en arrière, et le ciel sera Les armes nucléaires sont très puissantes et méritent d'être mentionnées, mais la concurrence entre les pays et les groupes ethniques, en dernière analyse, réside principalement dans la civilisation économique et politique, et comprend bien sûr aussi la terre, la population, les ressources, etc. , militaire, influence, sphère d'influence, etc. La guerre n'est qu'une forme non conventionnelle importante, tout comme les combats et les meurtres d'animaux. Cependant, que les groupes d'animaux se battent à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur, il y a aussi des compromis et des partages considérables. Sinon, les groupes d'espèces animales aussi complètement disparaître ou périr. Il en va de même pour l'histoire évolutive de la société humaine. Il n'y a aucun doute à ce sujet. Que vous soyez un homme politique, un stratège militaire, ou un philosophe, un penseur ou un sociologue, Anthropologues, pas d'exception.

Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le monde a formé une situation de guerre froide : les deux principales organisations militaires, l'Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN) et l'Organisation du Pacte de Varsovie (Pacte de Varsovie), ont commencé à étendre leurs armes et à se préparer à la guerre. et l'Union soviétique a lancé une course aux armements et avait des réserves d'armes nucléaires. Les États vulnérables s'appuieront sur la protection militaire des grandes puissances pour assurer leur propre sécurité.

L'expression Troisième Guerre mondiale a commencé à apparaître dans les communiqués entre les dirigeants de divers pays. Avec un grand nombre d'applications de haute technologie dans le domaine militaire, en particulier le développement et la prolifération à grande échelle des armes nucléaires, les gens ont laissé un grand espace à l'imagination de la troisième guerre mondiale : certains pensent que la troisième guerre mondiale sera une échelle qui se propage partout dans le monde.La guerre nucléaire mondiale, cette guerre deviendra la plus grande catastrophe de l'histoire de la civilisation humaine. La crise des missiles de Cuba en 1962 était autrefois considérée comme la crise de l'histoire humaine la plus proche de la troisième guerre mondiale : une confrontation entre deux puissances dotées d'une puissance nucléaire sans précédent qui a duré des décennies dans la mer des Caraïbes. Bien que l'incident ait été résolu sans heurts, la guerre nucléaire à grande échelle est depuis devenue un surnom pour la troisième guerre mondiale.

Avec le développement du monde, de plus en plus de gens croient que la troisième guerre mondiale deviendra un terme historique qui n'apparaîtra jamais, ou une guerre qui ne se produira pas dans une période de temps visible, tout cela à cause de l'équilibre des pouvoirs entre les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique, et mettre en œuvre une politique de destruction mutuelle assurée afin que la guerre n'éclate pas.

 

La Troisième Guerre mondiale est une guerre imaginaire à grande échelle dans l'au-delà. Pendant la guerre froide entre les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique, si une guerre éclatait entre les deux parties, sa gravité pourrait être qualifiée de Troisième Guerre mondiale, mais heureusement, les deux parties ont fait de leur mieux pour que la guerre soit évitée, et aucune des deux parties n'a éclaté jusqu'à la fin de la guerre froide. Jusqu'à présent, les trois guerres n'ont été que spéculées et imaginées, et elles n'ont pas éclaté, mais une fois qu'elles éclateront, elles affecteront sérieusement tout le monde sur la terre.Après la grande épreuve de la guerre froide, l'Union soviétique aspirait à la paix et s'oppose à la guerre.

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Avec un grand nombre d'applications de haute technologie dans le domaine militaire, en particulier le développement et la prolifération à grande échelle des armes nucléaires, les gens ont laissé une grande place à l'imagination de la troisième guerre mondiale - certains pensent que la troisième guerre mondiale sera une grande -échelle La guerre nucléaire dans le monde deviendra la plus grande catastrophe de l'histoire de la civilisation humaine. Parmi eux, la crise des missiles de Cuba en 1962 était autrefois considérée comme la crise la plus proche de la Troisième Guerre mondiale dans l'histoire de l'humanité - la confrontation entre deux grandes puissances dotées de forces nucléaires sans précédent dans la mer des Caraïbes a duré des dizaines de jours, offrant la possibilité de la guerre au sol, élevée à des hauteurs sans précédent.

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De différents points de vue, il existe de nombreuses raisons pour le déclenchement de la Troisième Guerre mondiale, et le gouvernement et le peuple ont des points de vue différents, comme la guerre lancée par l'ex-Union soviétique contre l'Occident, la montée de la Chine et la guerre en Moyen-orient.

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Il existe de nombreuses raisons différentes pour le déclenchement des guerres, et les camps sont également différents. On pense que certains pays utiliseront la bombe atomique et que la guerre pourrait s'étendre dans l'espace. La guerre a éclaté parce que, par exemple, les États-Unis ont réprimé une Chine montante. Conflit militaire entre l'Inde, le Vietnam, les Philippines et la Chine, Israël et les pays du Moyen-Orient, le Moyen-Orient ou l'Iran et l'Europe et les États-Unis, attaque nucléaire de la Corée du Nord contre la Corée du Sud ou le Japon, discorde entre la Chine et la Corée du Sud, conflit militaire, retour des États-Unis au conflit des États d'Asie-Pacifique, etc. Mais il y a aussi des gens qui croient que la troisième guerre mondiale se déroulera pour les grandes puissances en concurrence pour les ressources en pétrole et en charbon. Si une troisième guerre mondiale éclatait, les raisons pourraient être une population en constante expansion, la géopolitique, les sphères d'influence, le choc des civilisations, etc.

En raison de l'émergence d'armes nucléaires telles que les bombes atomiques, la troisième guerre mondiale est fondamentalement impossible à apparaître dans la situation de guerre chaude.

Il y a une guerre nucléaire mondiale sur la terre, et le monde a lancé des bombes atomiques et des bombes à hydrogène avec un rendement nucléaire de plus de 20 milliards de tonnes de TNT. Compléter

Géographie, climat et environnement : En raison de la pollution radioactive causée par les explosions nucléaires, la plupart des animaux sont sacrifiés, et seules les créatures des fonds marins et de la vie de bas niveau sont susceptibles de survivre, diverses réactions chimiques polluent l'atmosphère, la lumière du soleil est entravée, la température de la terre est abaissée et l'équateur est tombé au point de congélation En dessous, l'architecture humaine disparaîtra dans les quelques centaines d'années à venir.

Impact sur les personnes et les espèces : la plupart des personnes ont disparu, certains animaux au sol ont disparu et certains animaux et plantes ont muté

  

L'homme qui a failli devenir l'empereur de toute l'Europe, il a fait trembler toute l'Europe.

Guderian (Allemagne) le père du char.

 

Il était un héros de la guerre éclair, a vaincu les puissants Polonais et a balayé la France en deux semaines.En cinq mois, il a remporté une série de victoires et les soldats ont été braqués sur lui jusqu'à deux millions de personnes.

 

Jules César (Rome antique) Symbole de la Rome antique.

 

Il a combattu en Gaule, et il a rivalisé avec Pompée pour l'hégémonie. Dans la bataille de Phassaro, le faible a vaincu le fort, et a vaincu Pompée d'un seul coup. Après cela, personne ne pouvait égaler l'ennemi. Asie Mineure, Afrique du Nord, En Espagne, guerre après guerre, César est presque devenu synonyme de victoire.

 

Khalid (arabe) Épée d'Allah.

 

Il a conduit l'armée arabe à écraser l'armée romaine orientale lors de la bataille de Yamuk.Il a fait une autre figure marquante à cette époque, l'empereur romain oriental Chirac pour dire tristement au revoir à la Syrie : "Belle Syrie, adieu !"

 

Suvorov (Russie) le premier joueur de l'histoire russe.

 

Il a fait de grandes réalisations dans la guerre russo-turque, et il a vaincu l'armée française lors de l'expédition en Italie. Il était le seul commandant à l'époque de Napoléon qui pouvait rivaliser avec Napoléon. Mais l'histoire ne leur a malheureusement pas donné la chance de s'affronter. -au.

 

Hannibal (Carthage) Héros solitaire.

 

Dans la guerre avec Rome, il a conduit 60 000 personnes sur le territoire de Rome, s'est battu seul et a créé des miracles.

Les trois batailles majeures dans le monde sont : première : la bataille de la Somme entre les forces britanniques et françaises de la Première Guerre mondiale contre l'armée allemande. Elle a duré six mois. Les deux parties ont investi plus de 1,5 million de soldats, et la Le nombre de victimes a atteint le chiffre étonnant de 1,3 million. La bataille a été menée par les forces britanniques et françaises. Elle s'est soldée par un échec, et ce fut la bataille la plus importante et la plus meurtrière de la Première Guerre mondiale ; deuxième : la bataille de Verdun entre l'armée allemande et les forces britanniques et françaises pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, qui a duré 10 mois, les deux parties ont investi près d'un million de soldats et subi plus de 70 pertes. 10 000, la bataille s'est terminée par la défaite de l'armée allemande ; la troisième : la bataille de Stalingrad entre l'armée allemande et l'armée soviétique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, qui a duré six mois, en raison du trop grand nombre de troupes participant à la guerre, il est impossible de compter avec précision le nombre de victimes de soldats à lui seul atteint 2 millions, et 40 000 C'était la bataille la plus meurtrière de la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

"L'art de la guerre"

"L'art de la guerre de Sun Tzu" est le livre militaire le plus célèbre de la Chine ancienne et le plus ancien "Livre sacré d'études militaires" au monde. L'auteur Sun Wu, également connu sous le nom de Sun Tzu ou Sun Wuzi, nom de courtoisie Changqing, était originaire de Le'an (aujourd'hui comté de Huimin, Shandong) à la fin de la période des printemps et des automnes. Sun Wu a connu plusieurs guerres et sa carrière militaire a duré 30 ans. "L'art de la guerre de Sun Tzu" est un magnifique trésor de l'ancien patrimoine culturel militaire chinois, une partie importante de l'excellente culture traditionnelle.

 

"Théorie de la guerre"

"On War" est connu comme l'ouvrage classique de la théorie militaire occidentale moderne, l'auteur est Karl von Clausewitz. "La théorie de la guerre" a joué un rôle majeur dans la formation et le développement de la pensée militaire occidentale moderne et est connue comme l'un des 100 livres qui ont influencé le processus historique. Dans cet ouvrage classique de la science militaire, il estime que la guerre doit être examinée à partir de la simple connexion et de la restriction mutuelle de tous les phénomènes de guerre, et avance la célèbre thèse selon laquelle "la guerre n'est rien d'autre que la continuation de la politique à travers une autre" ; le but est détruire les forces armées ennemies.principe le plus général de l'art militaire est la supériorité du nombre des troupes.

  

"Grande stratégie"

Le nom complet de "Grand Strategy" est "Grand Strategy : Principles and Practice", l'auteur John Collins (John Co11ins) est un célèbre théoricien stratégique américain. Le livre se concentre sur la description de diverses factions de la pensée militaire américaine contemporaine et des affaires militaires.

"L'influence de la puissance maritime sur l'histoire"

"L'influence de la puissance maritime sur l'histoire" est la première partie de la "trilogie de la théorie de la puissance maritime" de Mahan, ainsi que le premier ouvrage réussi de la théorie de la puissance maritime de Mahan. Dans ce livre, Mahan aborde l'aspect le plus important de la puissance d'un pays à travers la rétrospective et l'analyse des guerres maritimes de l'histoire, c'est-à-dire de 1660 à 1783. Théorie de la puissance maritime de Mahan.

 

"Stratégie"

"Stratégie" de Reed Hart. Ce livre a un statut élevé dans l'étude de l'histoire de la guerre occidentale et est une lecture incontournable pour la théorie militaire. À cause de ce livre, Reed Hart était considéré comme le "pape de la théorie militaire" en Occident. L'auteur en fait une analyse détaillée à l'aide de riches matériaux historiques. La "théorie de la stratégie" a une grande valeur historique. Depuis sa publication, elle a été largement traduite et publiée par des pays du monde entier, et a toujours été appréciée par les milieux militaires occidentaux.

 

"Dominance aérienne"

"Air Dominance" a également été traduit en "Theory of Air Dominance" et "Theory of Air Force Strategy", qui proposaient l'idée de dominance aérienne. La suprématie aérienne est divisée en suprématie aérienne tactique stratégique et opérationnelle. La maîtrise de l'air peut avoir un impact majeur sur l'issue d'une guerre.

 

"La science de la victoire"

"La science du gain" a été écrit par le maréchal Suvorov de l'Empire russe. Le contenu reflète de manière concentrée la pensée stratégique et tactique de Souvorov et sa manière de gouverner l'armée, y compris les réalisations militaires, la pensée militaire, le style de commandement, etc.

"Stratégie militaire"

Au début des années 1960, l'Union soviétique a publié le livre "Stratégie militaire". La publication de ce livre est comme l'explosion d'une bombe nucléaire, qui a immédiatement choqué le monde, créé un effet sensationnel et est devenue le sujet central et brûlant des cercles militaires et politiques de divers pays. Le nom de famille Sokolovsky chez l'auteur Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky signifie "aigle". Le livre est divisé en huit chapitres, impliquant divers domaines des affaires militaires, reflétant que la théorie militaire de l'Union soviétique subit une énorme transformation de la stratégie militaire traditionnelle à la stratégie nucléaire de fusée.

 

Introduction à l'art de la guerre

"Une introduction à l'art de la guerre" par AH Jomini. Ce livre est divisé en sept chapitres et quarante-sept sections.

En outre, la guerre spatiale, les armes nucléaires tactiques, les armes nucléaires stratégiques, <> (œuvres de Fangruida), etc. Il existe également de nombreuses autres œuvres bien connues dans le monde entier. Domination aérienne, dominance maritime, missiles, avions, chars, Les contre-mesures électroniques sont-elles comparables à la guerre moderne de haute technologie, à la guerre nucléaire et à la guerre spatiale? La réponse est non. Y aura-t-il des escrocs et des fous dans le monde? Dans les asiles neurologiques, les asiles d'aliénés ne sont pas rares, et les zoos en trouvent parfois Un chien à moitié enragé aboie et mord, et les gens y sont habitués. Vous ne pouvez lui donner que des sédatifs pour le calmer, et d'autre part, tenez le bâton qui bat le chien, et il n'y a pas d'autre moyen. Bien que la guerre mondiale et la guerre nucléaire aient un certain degré de La possibilité que des armes nucléaires tactiques (micro-ogives nucléaires, obus d'artillerie nucléaire, torpilles nucléaires et autres armes nucléaires tactiques nucléaires, etc.) puissent se produire d'un côté. Cependant, le poisson mourra et le filet sera brisé, et dix mille balles seront tirées, et ils périront ensemble, que la terre soit complètement détruite, que la destruction totale de la société humaine n'est pas très réaliste au 21e-22e siècle. Si la terre n'existe pas, alors tout devient vide de sens. Par conséquent, l'utilisation à grande échelle de bombes nucléaires stratégiques pour détruire toute la vie sur terre est très faible. C'est bien, après tout, c'est toujours un la race humaine, et elle n'est pas complètement dégénérée en bêtes et en tigres, en particulier les élites politiques et les grandes figures de la société humaine moderne. La dissuasion stratégique, la défense stratégique et l'attaque stratégique ne sont pas des mots agréables. Bien sûr, Desperados, désespérés, il y a des choses, mais ils ne peuvent pas être généralisés. Y a-t-il vraiment des fous et des sages et des dieux dans le monde, des centaines de billions de bombes atomiques et de bombes à hydrogène sont lancées, la terre, la lune, Mars, Jupiter, le soleil, la voie lactée, les trous noirs, La voie lactée, ...... est éphémère, n'est-ce pas le mythe du Big Bang qui a créé l'univers ?Ceci n'est probablement connu que de Dieu et de Zeus.

 

Un soldat qui ne veut pas être général n'est pas un bon soldat---Napoléon (France)

La meilleure destination d'un soldat est d'être tué par la dernière balle de la dernière bataille - Patton (États-Unis)

Seuls ceux qui n'ont pas peur de la mort méritent de vivre - MacArthur (États-Unis) Si je sais qu'il y a un champ de mines sur le chemin, je laisserai les troupes y aller directement ----- Joukov (Union soviétique)

Celui qui tire le premier et peut effectuer le tir concentré le plus intense gagnera - Rommel (Allemagne)

"Le conflit de la Seconde Guerre mondiale à travers le théâtre a été le 20e siècle avec des pertes et des ravages sans précédent. On estime que 80 à 120 millions de personnes sont mortes pendant la guerre.

 

Pays touchés Première Guerre mondiale Seconde Guerre mondiale

Décès 20 millions 72-100 millions

Blessés 20 millions 35 millions

Conscription 70 millions 110 millions

Taille du champ de bataille 4 millions de kilomètres carrés 22 millions de kilomètres carrés

Les guerres mondiales ont profondément marqué le cours de l'histoire du monde. Les anciens empires européens ont été détruits, divisés ou gravement endommagés. La cause directe en était le coût effarant de la guerre, ou dans certains cas la défaite face aux grandes puissances, la guerre affaiblie ou même interrompue. les principales puissances coloniales et les colonies. La connexion a fait fonctionner les colonies dans un État semi-autonome. Après avoir été contrôlées par la mère patrie, elles sont devenues des pays indépendants les uns après les autres. Le modèle politique mondial a subi d'énormes changements, et les pays du tiers monde ont été formés. Des systèmes modernes de sécurité internationale, économiques et diplomatiques ont été établis après la guerre. Des institutions telles que l'OTAN, les Nations Unies et l'Union européenne ont été créées pour gérer conjointement les affaires internationales, dans le but explicite d'empêcher la répétition d'une guerre à grande échelle. La guerre a également radicalement changé la vie quotidienne. Les technologies développées en temps de guerre ont également eu des effets considérables en temps de paix, comme les avions, la pénicilline, l'énergie nucléaire et les ordinateurs. "(cité de Wiki)

Toutes sortes de batailles et de conflits, parfois des parties hostiles se compromettent et résolvent divers différends par la négociation pacifique ; bien sûr, du point de vue du développement et des changements de l'ensemble de la société humaine, la tendance du développement pacifique est toujours le courant dominant, et l'état de guerre n'est pas la norme dominante après tout. Il ne fait aucun doute que la grande liberté et la raison de toute l'humanité surmonteront la sauvagerie. Sinon, la société humaine s'effondrera. Elle sera complètement détruite. Bien sûr, à partir d'un certain niveau de compréhension, la guerre peut être imprévisible, ou les conséquences seront terribles, ou elle peut conduire à des conflits dans une plus grande mesure. Dans le monde d'aujourd'hui, diverses contradictions se sont intensifiées et intensifiées, et dans 300 ans-- Dans 500 ou 1000 ans, il y aura inévitablement des changements mondiaux majeurs, ou des conflits sociaux, des révolutions sociales, ou des guerres, ou de grands tremblements de terre, des tsunamis, ou des épidémies majeures, ou des virus majeurs, ou des inventions et découvertes majeures. , (atterrissage humain sur la lune, atterrissage humain sur Mars , etc., révolution génétique, etc.), tout cela, ce n'est pas surprenant, il n'est pas nécessaire de paniquer, de désespérer, de s'agiter et de paniquer toute la journée, en pensant à tort qu'une bombe nucléaire est tombée du ciel, la terre est grand. Explosion, le soleil se couche, tout entre dans le compte à rebours de la destruction de la planète. La raison pour laquelle les êtres humains sont appelés société humaine est bien supérieure aux animaux primitifs, bien supérieure aux animaux primitifs. La grande sagesse et le grand pouvoir de tous les êtres humains sont à jamais invincibles. C'est la bombe atomique la plus puissante et la plus invincible avec le rendement le plus élevé. S'il n'y a pas de telles connaissances de base, alors, tout dans la société humaine existera-t-il encore ?

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Leader mondial Leader international Fang Ruida sur la paix et la guerre mondiales - La troisième guerre mondiale, la guerre nucléaire, la guerre spatiale, un grand scientifique, philosophe, penseur, sociologue, anthropologue, cosmologue, ingénieur militaire, expert en énergie nucléaire et de renommée mondiale. Il prône constamment la grande sagesse de toute l'humanité et le noble esprit de liberté et de rationalité, et prône le développement de la société humaine et la paix mondiale, la concurrence rationnelle et pacifique, propice au compromis et au partage inévitables, pour prévenir et contenir la guerre nucléaire et la déclenchement de la guerre mondiale, pour protéger et défendre la paix mondiale. Pour le bien-être de toute l'humanité, la paix, la sécurité, la prospérité, le bénéfice universel, la rationalité, la fraternité, la liberté, la prospérité et le travail acharné, inébranlable, il est loué par les 8 milliards de personnes. Que ce soit à l'est ou à l'ouest, que ce soit dans l'hémisphère sud ou dans l'hémisphère nord. Ses grandes idées et ses nobles idées sont comme le grand soleil qui brille à jamais Le vaste territoire. C'est le contenu principal de cet article. ( Bick novembre 2021, révisé en 2022)

 

Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руйда о мире и войне во всем мире - Третья мировая война, ядерная война, космическая война (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 пересмотренная версия, многоязычное сравнение глобальной сетевой версии)

Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руйда о мире и войне во всем мире - Третья мировая война, ядерная война, космическая война (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 пересмотренная версия, многоязычное сравнение глобальной сетевой версии) как только издание вышло, сразу же получило похвалу читателей и пользователей сети по всему миру. Чтобы удовлетворить потребности сотен миллионов людей, автор пересмотрел и переиздал его в интересах читателей и пользователей сети.

Бик. S

Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руида о мире во всем мире и войне - Третьей мировой войне, ядерной войне, космической войне

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21-22

В 20 веке наука и техника были высокоразвиты, социальная продуктивность росла семимильными шагами, постепенно развивались и менялись современная цивилизация и свободное рациональное познавательное восприятие человеческого общества, человеческое общество открыло новую планетарную цивилизацию, что является неизбежной тенденцией истории.Конечно, сегодняшнее человеческое общество также представляет собой различные кризисы и вызовы, столкновения цивилизаций, геополитику, территориальные споры, сферы влияния, фетишизм, политические и экономические системы, экономические модели и т. д., а также изменение климата, ресурсная среда, рост населения, разрыв в уровне благосостояния, чума, вирусы, стихийные бедствия, религиозные убеждения, расовая дискриминация, жестокая конкуренция, даже вооруженная война или ядерная война и т. д. Такие страны, как США, Китай, Россия, Европа, Индия и Пакистан среди них.Без противоречия и соперничества не было бы мира, и точно так же без мира и компромисса Мира не будет, если вы будете делиться богатством друг с другом.Сделайте шаг или два назад, и небо будет огромно.Ядерное оружие очень мощное и заслуживает упоминания.Однако конкуренция между странами и этносами,в конечном счете,в основном заключается в экономической и политической цивилизации,и конечно же включает в себя землю,население,ресурсы и т.д.Культура,технологии , вооруженные силы, влияние, сфера влияния и т. д. Война - это просто важная нетрадиционная форма, такая же, как борьба и убийство животных. Однако независимо от того, сражаются ли группы животных внутри или снаружи, также существует значительный компромисс и разделение. В противном случае группы видов животных будут также полностью исчезнуть или погибнуть.То же верно и для эволюционной истории человеческого общества.В этом нет никаких сомнений.Будь ты политик,военный стратег или философ,мыслитель или социолог,Антропологи не исключение.

После Второй мировой войны в мире сложилась ситуация холодной войны: две крупнейшие военные организации, Организация Североатлантического договора (НАТО) и Организация Варшавского договора (Варшавский договор), начали развертывать свои вооружения и готовиться к войне. а СССР начал гонку вооружений и имел запасы ядерного оружия. Уязвимые государства будут полагаться на военную защиту великих держав как на способ поддержания собственной безопасности.

Словосочетание «Третья мировая война» стало появляться в коммюнике лидеров разных стран. Благодаря большому количеству применений высоких технологий в военной области, особенно экстенсивному развитию и распространению ядерного оружия, люди предоставили большое пространство для воображения третьей мировой войны: некоторые думают, что третья мировая война будет масштаб, который распространяется по всему миру.Всемирная ядерная война, эта война станет величайшей катастрофой в истории человеческой цивилизации. Кубинский ракетный кризис 1962 года когда-то считался самым близким кризисом в истории человечества к Третьей мировой войне: противостояние двух держав с беспрецедентной ядерной мощью, которое длилось десятилетиями в Карибском море. Хотя инцидент разрешился гладко, полномасштабная ядерная война с тех пор стала прозвищем Третьей мировой войны.

С развитием мира все больше и больше людей верят, что третья мировая война станет историческим термином, который никогда не появится, или войной, которая не произойдет в обозримом промежутке времени, все из-за баланса сил между Соединенные Штаты и Советский Союз.И проводить политику гарантированного взаимного уничтожения, чтобы не разразилась война.

 

Третья мировая война - это воображаемая крупномасштабная война на том свете.Во время холодной войны между США и Советским Союзом, если между двумя сторонами вспыхивала война, ее серьезность можно было бы назвать Третьей мировой войной, но к счастью, обе стороны старались изо всех сил, чтобы войны удалось избежать, и ни одна из сторон не вспыхнула до конца холодной войны. До сих пор о трех войнах только предполагали и воображали, и они не разразились, но как только они разразятся, они серьезно повлияют на всех на земле.После великих испытаний холодной войны Советский Союз жаждал мира и выступал против войны.

.

С большим количеством применений высоких технологий в военной области, особенно экстенсивным развитием и распространением ядерного оружия, люди предоставили большое пространство для воображения третьей мировой войны - некоторые люди считают, что третья мировая война будет большой масштаба Ядерная война в мире станет величайшей катастрофой в истории человеческой цивилизации. Среди них Кубинский ракетный кризис 1962 года когда-то считался кризисом, наиболее близким к Третьей мировой войне в истории человечества — противостояние двух великих держав с беспрецедентными ядерными силами в Карибском море длилось десятки дней, принося возможность война на земле, поднятая на невиданные высоты.

​

С разных точек зрения существует много причин для начала Третьей мировой войны, и у правительства и народа разные взгляды, такие как война, развязанная бывшим Советским Союзом против Запада, подъем Китая и война в средний Восток.

​

Причин возникновения войн много разных, и лагеря тоже разные.Считается, что некоторые страны будут применять атомную бомбу, и война может распространиться в космос. Война разразилась потому, что, например, США подавили восставший Китай. Военный конфликт между Индией, Вьетнамом, Филиппинами и Китаем, Израилем и странами Ближнего Востока, Ближним Востоком или Ираном и Европой и Соединенными Штатами, ядерная атака Северной Кореи на Южную Корею или Японию, разногласия между Китаем и Южной Кореей, военный конфликт, возвращение США к государственному конфликту в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе и т. д. Но есть также люди, которые считают, что третья мировая война будет вестись между крупными державами, конкурирующими за нефть и угольные ресурсы. Если бы разразилась третья мировая война, причинами могли бы быть постоянно расширяющееся население, геополитика, сферы влияния, столкновение цивилизаций и т. д.

Из-за появления ядерного оружия, такого как атомные бомбы, третья мировая война в принципе не может появиться в ситуации горячей войны.

На земле идет глобальная ядерная война, и в мире запущены атомные и водородные бомбы с ядерной мощностью более 20 миллиардов тонн тротила. Полный

География, климат и окружающая среда: Из-за радиоактивного загрязнения, вызванного ядерными взрывами, большинство животных приносятся в жертву, и, вероятно, выживают только существа на морском дне и низкоуровневая жизнь, различные химические реакции загрязняют атмосферу, препятствуют солнечному свету, температура Земля опущена, а экватор опустился до точки замерзания Ниже человеческая архитектура исчезнет в ближайшие несколько сотен лет.

Воздействие на людей и виды: большинство людей вымерло, некоторые животные на земле вымерли, а некоторые животные и растения мутировали

  

Человек, который чуть не стал императором всей Европы, заставил всю Европу трепетать.

Гудериан (Германия) отец танка.

 

Он был героем блицкрига, разгромил сильных поляков, за две недели охватил Францию, за пять месяцев одержал ряд побед, и на него было направлено солдат до двух миллионов человек.

 

Юлий Цезарь (Древний Рим) Символ Древнего Рима.

 

Он воевал в Галлии,и он соперничал с Помпеем за гегемонию.В битве при Фассаро слабый победил сильного,и победил Помпея одним махом.После этого никто не мог сравниться с противником.Малая Азия,Северная Африка, Испания, в войне за войной, Цезарь почти стал синонимом победы.

 

Халид (араб.) Меч Аллаха.

 

Он возглавил арабскую армию, разгромившую восточно-римскую армию в битве при Ямуке, и заставил другого выдающегося деятеля того времени, восточно-римского императора Ширака, с грустью попрощаться с Сирией: «Прекрасная Сирия, прощай!»

 

Суворов (Россия) первый шахматист в истории России.

 

Он добился больших успехов в русско-турецкой войне, и он разгромил французскую армию в экспедиции в Италию.Он был единственным полководцем в эпоху Наполеона, который мог соперничать с Наполеоном.Но история к сожалению не дала им шанса противостоять друг другу головой -на.

 

Ганнибал (Карфаген) Одинокий герой.

 

В войне с Римом он привел на территорию Рима 60 000 человек, сражался один и творил чудеса.

Три крупнейших сражения в мире: Первое: Битва на Сомме между британскими и французскими войсками в Первой мировой войне против немецкой армии. Она длилась полгода. Обе стороны вложили более 1,5 млн солдат, и число жертв достигло поразительных 1,3 млн. Сражение, в котором участвовали британские и французские войска, закончилось неудачей, и это было самое крупное и самое жертвенное сражение в Первой мировой войне, второе: сражение под Верденом между немецкой армией и британские и французские войска в Первой мировой войне, длившейся 10 месяцев, обе стороны вложили около 1 млн солдат и понесли более 70 потерь, 10 000, битва закончилась поражением немецкой армии, третья: Сталинградская битва между германской армией и советской армией во Второй мировой войне, длившейся полгода, из-за слишком большого количества войск, участвовавших в войне, невозможно точно подсчитать, число потерь одних толь

Agora na luz do dia. Azul lindo!

“I will maintain and defend the sovereignty of the United States paramount to any and all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty,” the more than 1,200 new cadets pledged allegiance to the Army during Reception Day July 2, 2018. The Class of 2022 is composed of 294 women, 30% minorities, 16 international students and 10 combat veterans. (U.S. Army photo by Eric S. Bartelt)

Oskar Schindler first arrived in Kraków in October 1939 on Abwehr business and took an apartment the following month. Emilie maintained the apartment in Ostrava and visited Oskar in Kraków at least once a week. In November 1939 he contacted interior decorator Mila Pfefferberg to decorate his new apartment. Her son, Leopold "Poldek" Pfefferberg, soon became one of his contacts for black market trading. They eventually became lifelong friends. Also that November, Schindler was introduced to Itzhak Stern, who was a that time an accountant for Schindler's fellow Abwehr agent Josef "Sepp" Aue, who had taken over Stern's formerly Jewish-owned place of employment as a Treuhander (trustee). Property belonging to Polish Jews, including their possessions, places of business, and homes were seized by the Germans beginning immediately after the invasion, and Jewish citizens were stripped of their civil rights. Schindler showed Stern the balance sheet of a company he was thinking of acquiring, an enamelware manufacturor called Rekord Ltd[a] owned by a consortium of Jewish businessmen that had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year. Stern advised him that rather than running the company as a trusteeship under the auspices of the Haupttreuhandstelle Ost (Main Trustee Office for the East), he should buy or lease the business, as that would give him more freedom from the dictates of the Nazis, including the freedom to hire more Jews. With the financial backing of several Jewish investors, Schindler signed an informal lease agreement on the factory on 13 November 1939 and formalised the arrangement on 15 January 1940. He renamed it Deutsche Emaillewaren-Fabrik (German Enamelware Factory) or DEF, and it soon became known by the nickname "Emalia". He initially acquired a staff of seven Jewish workers (including Abraham Bankier, who helped him manage the company) and 250 non-Jewish Poles. The business employed around 1,750 workers, a thousand of whom were Jews, at its peak in 1944. Schindler also helped run Schlomo Wiener Ltd, a wholesale outfit that sold his enamelware, and was leaseholder of Prokosziner Glashütte, a glass factory.

Schindler's ties with the Abwehr and his connections in the Wehrmacht and its Armaments Inspectorate enabled him to obtain contracts to produce enamel cookware for the military. These connections also later helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death. As time went on, Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe. Bankier, a key black market connection, obtained goods for bribes as well as extra materials for use in the factory. Schindler himself enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and pursued extramarital relationships with his secretary, Viktoria Klonowska, and Eva Kisch Scheuer, a merchant specialising in enamelware from DEF. Emilie Schindler visited for a few months in 1940 and moved to Kraków to live with Oskar in 1941.

 

Initially Schindler was mostly interested in the money-making potential of the business and hired Jews because they were cheaper than Poles – the wages were set by the occupying Nazi regime. Later he began shielding his workers without regard for cost. The status of his factory as a business essential to the war effort became a decisive factor enabling him to help his Jewish workers. Whenever Schindlerjuden (Schindler Jews) were threatened with deportation, he claimed exemptions for them. Wives, children, and even persons with disabilities were claimed to be necessary mechanics and metalworkers. On one occasion, the Gestapo came to Schindler demanding that he hand over a family with forged identity papers. "Three hours after they walked in," Schindler said, "two drunk Gestapo men reeled out of my office without their prisoners and without the incriminating documents they had demanded."

On 1 August 1940 Governor Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within the next two weeks. Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay. Of the 60,000 to 80,000 Jews then living in the city, only 15,000 remained by March 1941. These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto, established in the industrial Podgórze district. Schindler's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory.

 

In fall 1941 the Nazis began transporting Jews out of the ghetto. Most of these were sent to Belzec extermination camp and killed. On 13 March 1943 the ghetto was liquidated and those still fit for work were sent to the new concentration camp at Płaszów. Several thousand not deemed fit for work were sent to extermination camps and killed. Hundreds more were killed on the streets by the Nazis as they cleared out the ghetto. Schindler, aware of the planned action because of his Wehrmacht contacts, had his workers stay at the factory overnight to prevent them coming to any harm. Schindler witnessed the liquidation of the ghetto and was appalled. From that point forward, says Schindlerjude Sol Urbach, Schindler "changed his mind about the Nazis. He decided to get out and to save as many Jews as he could."

 

Schindler was arrested three times on suspicion of black market activities and complicity in embezzlement, as well as breaking the Nuremberg Laws by kissing a Jewish girl. Amon Göth, the commandant of the Płaszów camp, and other SS guards used Jewish property (such as money, jewellery, and works of art) for themselves, although according to law, it belonged to the Reich. Schindler arranged the sale of such items on the black market. None of his arrests led to a trial, primarily because he bribed government officials to avoid further investigation.

 

As the Red Army drew nearer to Auschwitz concentration camp and the other easternmost concentration camps, the SS began evacuating the remaining prisoners westward. Amon Göth's personal secretary, Mietek Pemper, alerted Schindler to the Nazis' plans to close all factories not directly involved with the war effort, including Schindler's enamelware facility. Pemper also persuaded and encouraged Schindler to switch production from enamelware to anti-tank grenades in an effort to save Schindler's Jewish workers. Tipped off to the factory closure, Schindler persuaded the SS officials to allow him to move his 1,200 Jewish workers to Brünnlitz (Czech: Brněnec), in the German-speaking Sudetenland, thus sparing them from certain death in the gas chambers. Mietek Pemper further aided Schindler's efforts by compiling and typing the list of 1,200 Jews—1,000 of Schindler's workers and 200 other inmates—who were sent to Brünnlitz in October 1944.

 

In Brünnlitz, Schindler gained another former Jewish factory, which was scheduled to produce hand grenades and parts for V-2 rockets. It is unclear how much armament was actually produced there; Schindler and some of the workers claimed in the immediate post-war years that there had been no production that would have been useful to the German war effort, and even that some or all of the output had been sabotaged [Wikipedia.org]

Maintained and distributed by DYKSTRA De-Vries, KR4U inc. Of Bellflower CA. At 99 Cents only stores in 1449 W March Lane Stockton CA. This code is KR4U 228. They replaced the pony and elephant wild west mini carousel kiddie ride with this.

Three bottles of Guinness used to maintain froth. Light Science and Magic Third edition. (LSM) diagram 7.10. In addition, black foam card as background. Diffuser to right of bottle. SB 800 shooting towards bottle to light labels. Boomed DIY beauty dish SB 600. Subject sitting on black glass. PP with Lightroom 3.

Cape May’s Summer 2019 Calendar

of events sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC)

June 15- Sept. 5, 2019

 

Through Nov. 3

 

Carroll Gallery Exhibit “The Iconic Cape May Lighthouse: From the Pages of the First Resort”: In the Carroll Gallery in the Carriage House at the Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Curator Ben Miller, author of “From the Pages of the First Resort,” provides visitors with a unique look at the iconic Cape May Lighthouse. Illuminating darkness over the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay for 160 years, Cape May's lighthouse is the third beacon to guide mariners through the tumultuous waters at the confluence of the ocean and bay. Memories and historic images abound, from the keepers who dedicated their lives to maintaining the light, the MAC preservationists who restored it, and all those who've relied upon it for over a century and a half. Admission is free. Through Sunday, Nov. 3. Open daily; times vary. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Through June 21

 

Cape May Stage presents “Heisenberg” - One of the most produced plays in the U.S. in 2018, “Heisenberg”, is a funny and surprising play about a chance encounter between a reserved, Irish older gentleman and a rowdy, younger woman from New Jersey who slingshots herself into his life. Wednesdays-Saturdays at 8 p.m., Saturdays and Sundays at 3 p.m. Through June 21. The Robert Shackleton Playhouse is located at the corner of Bank & Lafayette streets, Cape May. Presented by Cape May Stage in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information visit www.CapeMayStage.org

 

Through July 20

 

East Lynne Theater presents “Summerland” – “Summerland” is a historical fiction mystery based on real life spirit photographer William H. Mumler (1832-1884). In 1869, 150 years ago, many, including Mary Todd Lincoln, flocked to his studio to get their pictures taken just to see who also showed up in the photo - that is - who was dead who appeared as a ghost in the photo. While a detective is keen to prove he’s a fraud, Mumler’s wife, a clairvoyant, is digging into the detective’s past. Wednesdays through Saturdays, through July 20 (no show on July 4, additional show on July 7) at 8:30 p.m. First Presbyterian Church of Cape May, 500 Hughes St., Cape May. Tickets: $35; 30 (ages 65+); $20 students and military (active/retired/veteran); ages 12 and under free. Presented by the East Lynne Theater in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 18-Aug. 29

 

Clueless at the Physick Estate “Give Up the Ghost": New mystery for 2019! On the 80th anniversary of the murder of Mr. Harry Stockressy III, Cape May is once again abuzz with stories of the high profile killing. Determined to clear her family’s name, local reporter Eileen Sawyer takes a step back in time to discover the truth, and accidentally raises more than just some questions. Can you help her figure out what really happened all those years ago? Accessible with advance notice. Limited admission. Tickets $25 adults; $18 children (ages 3-12). Tuesdays and Thursdays, 7 p.m. and 8:45 p.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org

 

June 19

 

Lunch & Learn “Fabulous First Ladies”: These First Ladies were accomplished in their own right, but often in the shadow of the President. The first of a series, Mary Stewart presents this talk on First Ladies through the early 20th century. Wednesday, June 19 at noon. Bring a bag lunch and hear talks on popular topics of history, culture and the arts during the summer Lunch & Learn series at the Cape May Lutheran Church, 509 Pittsburgh Ave., Cape May. Admission is free for MAC members and $5 for non-members and includes beverages. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 20

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, June 20 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, June 20 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 21

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, June 21 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Sunset Lighthouse Cruise: The beauty of the lighthouses of Delaware Bay is best experienced at sunset, and this evening trip lets you view two of them, Cape May and Brandywine Shoal, as they come to life for the evening. Includes hors d’oeuvres (cash bar available). A stop at each lighthouse for photo opportunities and historical information is also planned, and you can enjoy dolphin watching along the way. $35 adults, $25 children. Friday, June 21. Departs from the Miss Chris Marina at 6:30 p.m. Co-sponsored by the Cape May Whale Watcher and the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). Purchase tickets in advance or online. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 22

 

4th Annual Cape May Hops Festival: Hoppy or smooth? Savor the complex flavors of craft beer at this annual summer BBQ and music festival that kicks off summer at the Physick Estate that includes crafts vendors. Brews, blues and BBQ are featured and families are welcome! Saturday, June 22, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 25

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, June 25, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

A Day in the Life With Dr. Physick: New in 2019! Join Dr. Emlen Physick, himself, as he takes you on a tour of his private residence, the grandest in its day, the Emlen Physick Estate. Built in 1879, the Physick House was designed by illustrious Philadelphia architect Frank Furness. Having inherited his fortune as an adult, young Emlen had this grand home built in the unusual Stick Style. He and his mother Mrs. Frances Ralston and maiden aunt Emilie Parmentier lived here at the turn of the 20th Century. Step back in time and hear directly from the good doctor about his love of animals, his love of motoring, his great civic spirit and the Victorian times in which he lived. Tuesday, June 25 at 10 a.m. Admission is $15 adults and $8 (children ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 26—Aug. 2

 

Cape May Stage presents “Sylvia” - Empty nesters Greg and Kate have moved back to Manhattan after twenty-two years in the suburbs, ready for the next chapter of their lives. However, life has a way of giving you what you think you don’t want. Greg finds Sylvia, a street-smart lab/poodle mix, and brings her home. She promptly becomes a bone of contention between Greg and Kate, testing their marriage to hilarious and touching effect. Age Guide: 16-plus Tuesdays-Sundays at 8 p.m., June 26-Aug. 2. The Robert Shackleton Playhouse is located at the corner of Bank & Lafayette streets, Cape May. Presented by Cape May Stage in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information visit www.CapeMayStage.org.

 

June 27

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, June 27 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, June 27, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, June 27 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

June 28

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, June 28 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

  

July 2

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, July 2, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Fairy Tale Breakfast: New in 2019! Children will enjoy a delicious breakfast buffet with child-friendly choices, hear classic fairy tales read aloud, and play dress-up with fairy wings during the Fairy Tale Breakfast at the Carriage House Café & Tearoom on the grounds of the Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Face painting is included! Tuesday, July 2, at 9:30 a.m. $20 adults and children ages 3-12; children under 3 years old $5. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 3

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, July 3, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 4

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, July 4 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Dinner & Fireworks: Here's an exclusive chance to see the area’s Independence Day fireworks from the ideal vantage point: atop the Cape May Lighthouse. Participants will be transported by trolley from the Washington Street Mall Information Booth to the Red Store in Cape May Point for a delicious dinner prepared by Chef Lucas Manteca. After dinner, hop back on board for a short ride to Cape May Lighthouse, and climb to the top to watch the fireworks from the watch gallery. Reservations necessary. Thursday, July 4, at 6:15 p.m. Tickets $100. Call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, July 4 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 5

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, July 5 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 9

 

Breakfast with the Pirates: It’s a breakfast fit for a matey! Children hear a story over a yummy breakfast and then create their own pirate hook to go on a pirate-y treasure hunt on the grounds. Wait … what is all that ruckus? It’s a band of pirates! Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St., Cape May. Admission $20 adult; $18 children (ages 3-12). Tuesday, July 9, at 9:30 a.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, July 9, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

A Day in the Life With Dr. Physick: New in 2019! Join Dr. Emlen Physick, himself, as he takes you on a tour of his private residence, the grandest in its day, the Emlen Physick Estate. Built in 1879, the Physick House was designed by illustrious Philadelphia architect Frank Furness. Having inherited his fortune as an adult, young Emlen had this grand home built in the unusual Stick Style. He and his mother Mrs. Frances Ralston and maiden aunt Emilie Parmentier lived here at the turn of the 20th Century. Step back in time and hear directly from the good doctor about his love of animals, his love of motoring, his great civic spirit and the Victorian times in which he lived. Tuesday, July 9 at 10 a.m. Admission is $15 adults and $8 (children ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, July 10, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Graveyards, Ghosts & Mansions Combo Tour: Delve into the realm of the dead on this combination trolley and house tour that starts with a trolley ride to historic Cold Spring Presbyterian Cemetery to see the graves of Dr. Emlen Physick and his family. At the graveyard and on your return to the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate, you’ll hear EVPs (electronic voice phenomena) recorded by tour guides and staff at the estate. Your senses might surprise you as you contemplate the evidence of what many say is paranormal activity in the house, and you’ll have the opportunity to talk to staff about their own experiences. Tour is two hours, beginning and ending at the Physick, Estate, 1048 Washington Street. Wednesday, July 10, 8 p.m. $40 adults; $35 (children ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 11

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, July 11 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, July 11, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, July 11 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 12

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, July 12 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Sunset Lighthouse Cruise: The beauty of the lighthouses of Delaware Bay is best experienced at sunset, and this evening trip lets you view two of them, Cape May and Brandywine Shoal, as they come to life for the evening. Includes hors d’oeuvres (cash bar available). A stop at each lighthouse for photo opportunities and historical information is also planned, and you can enjoy dolphin watching along the way. $35 adults, $25 children. Friday, July 12. Departs from the Miss Chris Marina at 6:30 p.m. Co-sponsored by the Cape May Whale Watcher and the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). Purchase tickets in advance or online. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 13

 

Grand Lighthouse Cruise: Come aboard the Cape May Whale Watcher to view and photograph seven historic lighthouses of the late 19th and early part of the 20th centuries. Most of these lighthouses stand on pedestals out of sight of land and are still operational. Each 5-hour cruise includes narration on the history of each lighthouse and more. Includes continental breakfast buffet and Captain’s Lunch buffet. A cash bar is available. Saturday, July 13, from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. Tickets $95 (adults) $75 (children ages 7-12). Sponsored by the Cape May Whale Watcher and the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 16

 

Fairy Tale Breakfast: New in 2019! Children will enjoy a delicious breakfast buffet with child-friendly choices, hear classic fairy tales read aloud, and play dress-up with fairy wings during the Fairy Tale Breakfast at the Carriage House Café & Tearoom on the grounds of the Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Face painting is included! Tuesday, July 16, at 9:30 a.m. $20 adults and children ages 3-12; children under 3 years old $5. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, July 16, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Lighthouse Full Moon Climb: Let the light of the full moon guide you up the 199 stairs to the starry top. Don’t miss a rare opportunity to see the light of the moon at the top, weather permitting. The Cape May Lighthouse is located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township. Tuesday, July 16, 8 p.m. to 10 p.m. $15 for adults, $8 for children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Moonlight Trolley Ride: Victorians tended to sentimentalize even the most mundane of things, from teacups to toothbrushes. Take this romantic trolley ride along the beachfront and through the heart of the Historic District, under the light of the full moon, as you hear tales of Victorian courtship. Tuesday, July 16 at 8:45 p.m. Admission is $15. Leaves from Ocean Street Trolley Stop. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 17

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, July 17, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Lunch & Learn “An Interview with Amelia Earhart”: A continuation of Mark Allen’s wildly popular Amelia Earhart Mystery, this presentation will feature a live interview with Amelia Earhart, herself. Presenters - Mark Allen and Melissa Palmer Wednesday, July 17 at noon. Bring a bag lunch and hear talks on popular topics of history, culture and the arts during the summer Lunch & Learn series at the Cape May Lutheran Church, 509 Pittsburgh Ave., Cape May. Admission is free for MAC members and $5 for non-members and includes beverages. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 18

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, July 18 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, July 18, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, July 18 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 19

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, July 19 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Brews at the Lighthouse with Cape May Brewing Co.: Come to the Cape May Lighthouse at Cape May Point State Park for an evening of fun as the sun begins to set. Play lawn games, enjoy a variety of Cape May Brewery brews, grab a bite to eat and hang with friends, on the grounds beneath this historic 1859 beacon. Friday, July 19, 2019. 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Cape May Brewery. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Sunset Lighthouse Cruise: The beauty of the lighthouses of Delaware Bay is best experienced at sunset, and this evening trip lets you view two of them, Cape May and Brandywine Shoal, as they come to life for the evening. Includes hors d’oeuvres (cash bar available). A stop at each lighthouse for photo opportunities and historical information is also planned, and you can enjoy dolphin watching along the way. $35 adults, $25 children. Friday, July 19. Departs from the Miss Chris Marina at 6:30 p.m. Co-sponsored by the Cape May Whale Watcher and the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). Purchase tickets in advance or online. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 23

 

Breakfast with the Pirates: It’s a breakfast fit for a matey! Children hear a story over a yummy breakfast and then create their own pirate hook to go on a pirate-y treasure hunt on the grounds. Wait … what is all that ruckus? It’s a band of pirates! Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St., Cape May. Admission $20 adult; $18 children (ages 3-12). Tuesday, July 23, at 9:30 a.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, July 23, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

A Day in the Life With Dr. Physick: New in 2019! Join Dr. Emlen Physick, himself, as he takes you on a tour of his private residence, the grandest in its day, the Emlen Physick Estate. Built in 1879, the Physick House was designed by illustrious Philadelphia architect Frank Furness. Having inherited his fortune as an adult, young Emlen had this grand home built in the unusual Stick Style. He and his mother Mrs. Frances Ralston and maiden aunt Emilie Parmentier lived here at the turn of the 20th Century. Step back in time and hear directly from the good doctor about his love of animals, his love of motoring, his great civic spirit and the Victorian times in which he lived. Tuesday, July 23 at 10 a.m. $15 adults, $8 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 24-Aug. 31

 

East Lynne Theater presents “The Rainmaker” – “The Rainmaker” is a romantic comedy, was so popular when it opened on Broadway in 1954, that it was translated into 30 languages, turned into a film, and was adapted for the 1964 musical 110 in the Shade. It’s the 1930s, out West, during the Depression, with no hope of rain in site. Enter Starbuck, who claims he can make it rain for $100. There are those who believe he can do it - and those who don’t. And then there’s Lizzie, who wants so much to believe in anything – especially herself. Wednesdays through Saturdays, July 24-Aug. 31 at 8 p.m. First Presbyterian Church of Cape May, 500 Hughes St., Cape May. Tickets: $35; 30 (ages 65+); $20 students and military (active/retired/veteran); ages 12 and under free. Presented by the East Lynne Theater in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 24

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, July 24, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 25

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, July 25 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Christmas in July at the Lighthouse: Santa visits the Cape May Lighthouse in board shorts! Bring the children to visit with Santa and get an early start on their lists! Enjoy kid-friendly activities, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse Thursday, July 25, 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, July 25, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, July 25 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 26

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, July 26 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 30

 

Fairy Tale Breakfast: New in 2019! Children will enjoy a delicious breakfast buffet with child-friendly choices, hear classic fairy tales read aloud, and play dress-up with fairy wings during the Fairy Tale Breakfast at the Carriage House Café & Tearoom on the grounds of the Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Face painting is included! Tuesday, July 30, at 9:30 a.m. $20 adults and children ages 3-12; children under 3 years old $5. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, July 30, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

July 31

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, July 31, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 1

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, Aug. 1 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, Aug. 1 at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, Aug. 1 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 2

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, Aug. 2 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Sunset Lighthouse Cruise: The beauty of the lighthouses of Delaware Bay is best experienced at sunset, and this evening trip lets you view two of them, Cape May and Brandywine Shoal, as they come to life for the evening. Includes hors d’oeuvres (cash bar available). A stop at each lighthouse for photo opportunities and historical information is also planned, and you can enjoy dolphin watching along the way. $35 adults, $25 children. Friday, Aug. 2. Departs from the Miss Chris Marina at 6:30 p.m. Co-sponsored by the Cape May Whale Watcher and the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). Purchase tickets in advance or online. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 3

 

8th Annual Craft Beer, Music & Crab Festival: Don’t miss this Cape May favorite, what CBS-NY named a New Jersey “Top 5” summer festival and Cape May Magazine voted best Cape May Food Festival/Event! Families welcome! Enjoy craft beers, live music, crabs and food trucks with crafters and children’s games and entertainment on the lovely grounds of the Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St., Cape May. Saturday, Aug. 3, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 6-15

 

REV’s Victorian Vaudeville: REV Theatre presents a diverse display designed to dazzle and delight on the grounds of Cape May’s Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Songs! Dances! Acts! Jokes! Magic! Come to the Emlen Physick Estate – the perfect place for one and all to step back into a sweeter, simpler time and enjoy REV’s valentine to Victorian vaudeville under the summer stars. Tuesday, Aug. 6-Thursday, Aug. 15 nightly at 7 p.m. Admission $25 adults, $20 seniors and children over 12. Children under 12 admitted free. Presented by REV Theater in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 6

 

Breakfast with the Pirates: It’s a breakfast fit for a matey! Children hear a story over a yummy breakfast and then create their own pirate hook to go on a pirate-y treasure hunt on the grounds. Wait … what is all that ruckus? It’s a band of pirates! Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St., Cape May. Admission $20 adult; $18 children (ages 3-12). Tuesday, Aug. 6, at 9:30 a.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, Aug. 6, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 7

 

National Lighthouse Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: Celebrate National Lighthouse Day and enjoy family activities at the base of the lighthouse including pirate-hat making, games, music and a crafts & collectibles show. Wednesday, Aug. 7, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

A Day in the Life With Dr. Physick: New in 2019! Join Dr. Emlen Physick, himself, as he takes you on a tour of his private residence, the grandest in its day, the Emlen Physick Estate. Built in 1879, the Physick House was designed by illustrious Philadelphia architect Frank Furness. Having inherited his fortune as an adult, young Emlen had this grand home built in the unusual Stick Style. He and his mother Mrs. Frances Ralston and maiden aunt Emilie Parmentier lived here at the turn of the 20th Century. Step back in time and hear directly from the good doctor about his love of animals, his love of motoring, his great civic spirit and the Victorian times in which he lived. Wednesday, Aug. 7 at 2:15 p.m. Admission is $15 adults and $8 (children ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 7-Sept. 20

 

Cape May Stage presents “Sidekicked” - It’s the last night of taping “I Love Lucy” and America’s favorite sidekick-Ethel Mertz, played by Vivian Vance-has a lot to get off her chest. This new play gives a glimpse into the behind the scenes drama of “I Love Lucy” as well incredible unheard stories from Vivian Vance’s extraordinary career. Age Guide 16-plus. Tuesdays-Sundays at 8 p.m., Aug. 7-Sept. 20. The Robert Shackleton Playhouse is located at the corner of Bank & Lafayette streets, Cape May. Presented by Cape May Stage in association with the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information visit www.CapeMayStage.org

 

Aug. 8

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, Aug. 8 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Thursday, Aug. 8, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Cherry House Haunting Tales & Investigation Tour: The Cherry House has been the subject of numerous reputed paranormal experiences. Tour this beautiful private home, built in 1849 in the Federal style, situated on one of Cape May’s oldest residential streets. Hear owners Beth and Frank Acker tell the results of various paranormal investigations on this guided tour and investigation. Hear stories of supernatural happenings witnessed in the house. Tour-goers are encouraged to bring their own recorders; some equipment will be available for use. Limited to 12 people per tour. Admission is $10 adults; $10 children (ages 3-12). Thursday, Aug. 8 at 7 p.m. The Cherry House, 637 Hughes St. Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For ticket information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 9

 

Storytime at the Emlen Physick Estate: New in 2019! Stories are fun! Gather at the gazebo on the expansive, shaded grounds of the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate and enjoy imaginative children’s stories read aloud by MAC museum educators. With themes of the seashore, history and the arts, these stories are ideal for children aged 3-8. It’s all within view of the historic Physick House museum, Cape May’s only Victorian House museum. Friday, Aug. 9 at 9:30 a.m. Free. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 13

 

Fairy Tale Breakfast: New in 2019! Children will enjoy a delicious breakfast buffet with child-friendly choices, hear classic fairy tales read aloud, and play dress-up with fairy wings during the Fairy Tale Breakfast at the Carriage House Café & Tearoom on the grounds of the Emlen Physick Estate, 1048 Washington St. Face painting is included! Tuesday, Aug. 13, at 9:30 a.m. $20 adults and children ages 3-12; children under 3 years old $5. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org

 

Chalfonte’s Civil War Dinner Package: At Cape May's oldest hotel, The Chalfonte, build up your appetite for their famous Southern Fried Chicken dinner by learning why it's “where the South meets the North.” In a room filled with Civil War artifacts, hear the fascinating story of how the Chalfonte blends its Northern roots (built by Cape May's Civil War hero, Colonel Henry Sawyer) with its 20th century operation by the daughter of a Confederate cavalry general who served under Robert E. Lee. Tuesday, Aug. 13, at 5:30 p.m. Tickets are $35 adults, $25 children (ages 3-12) and are available at the Washington Street Mall Information Booth. Co-sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC) and the Chalfonte Hotel. For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 14

 

Family Fun Day at the Cape May Lighthouse: The 1859 Cape May Lighthouse located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township, becomes a beacon of fun. Enjoy kid-friendly activities, performers, entertainment and crafts vendors at the base of the lighthouse. Wednesday, Aug. 14, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Free admission to activities on the grounds. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Graveyards, Ghosts & Mansions Combo Tour: Delve into the realm of the dead on this combination trolley and house tour that starts with a trolley ride to historic Cold Spring Presbyterian Cemetery to see the graves of Dr. Emlen Physick and his family. At the graveyard and on your return to the 1879 Emlen Physick Estate, you’ll hear EVPs (electronic voice phenomena) recorded by tour guides and staff at the estate. Your senses might surprise you as you contemplate the evidence of what many say is paranormal activity in the house, and you’ll have the opportunity to talk to staff about their own experiences. Tour is two hours, beginning and ending at the Physick, Estate, 1048 Washington Street. Wednesday, Aug. 14, 7:30 p.m. $40 adults; $35 (children ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Friends of Museum Education Lecture - Cape May’s Victorian Architecture with Michael Zuckerman: Hear this lecture on the architectural importance of Cape May and its place in the nation’s architectural history, from MAC Director Michael Zuckerman, Ph.D. Wednesday, Aug. 14 at 4 p.m. Cape May Lutheran Church, 509 Pittsburgh Ave. Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Aug. 15

 

Kids’ Crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower: New in 2019! Crafting is fun! Join our museum educators Thursday mornings during the summer for patriotic, musical and plain old fun crafts at the World War II Lookout Tower (Fire Control Tower No. 23), Sunset Boulevard. Geared to children under age 12, these crafts projects center on patriotic and historical themes, all within view of this restored historic site. Thursday, Aug. 15 from 10:30 a.m. to noon. Activities are free. Admission to the Tower is $6 adults $3 children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information, call 609-884-5404 or 800-275-4278 or visit www.capemaymac.org.

 

Lighthouse Full Moon Climb: Let the light of the full moon guide you up the 199 stairs to the starry top. Don’t miss a rare opportunity to see the light of the moon at the top, weather permitting. The Cape May Lighthouse is located in Cape May Point State Park, Lower Township. Thursday, Aug. 15, 8 p.m. to 10 p.m. $15 for adults, $8 for children (ages 3-12). Presented by the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts & Humanities (MAC). For more information,

Eleven men were in full time employment maintaining the lawns, gardens and driveways linking the mansion and its three-gate lodges- the Iron House, the Western Gate Lodge (the Towers), and the Castledermot Road lodge. Visitors were welcome and enjoyed the pleasure of the eight-acre grounds until 1902.

Toronto

The Payneham RSL Sub Branch was established in March 1938. Members met in the Payneham Institute. [Ref: Advertiser (Adelaide) 23-3-1938]

 

A Arnold, James Street, Payneham, is to undertake foundations and brickwork for new RSL Club Rooms, Payneham. Ref: Construction (Sydney NSW) 28-7-1954.

 

The original club rooms consisted of a shop on the present site.

The existing club rooms were built in three stages, mainly by volunteers, a tradition followed to improve and or maintain the buildings and other assets.

 

The club was incorporated in 1969.

 

Maintained and distributed by DYKSTRA-De Vries, inc. Of Bellflower CA. Under licenses to Warner Bros and Hanna Babera. At Big Kmart in Placerville CA.

Baddesley Clinton is not one the grandest of houses, nor is it filled with rare works of art, but having been owned by one family, the Ferrers, since the 16th century and maintained largely intact and original, it is a rare example of the average early-modern home of the lesser gentry. Unlike such mansions as nearby Coughton Court, Baddesley Clinton is relatively small, even cozy, and one can easily imagine the life of the people who lived here. It is best known for being the home of the Jesuit Henry Garnet for almost 14 years, and the existence of several priest hides conceived and built by Nicholas Owen.

 

The Clintons settled here in the thirteenth century, when it was called just Baddesley, and added their name to the place. They were responsible for the digging of the moat that you see above. It was eventually sold in 1438 to John Brome, a wealthy lawyer, and the Bromes built most of the east and west sides of the house.

 

John Brome was the Under Treasurer of England but a Lancastrian, and when Henry VI was deposed in 1461 by the Yorkist claimant Edward IV, Brome lost all of his court appointments. He later quarreled with John Herthill, Steward to Richard "the Kingmaker", Earl of Warwick, and Herthill murdered him in 1468 on the porch of the Whitefriars Church in London. Brome's second son, Nicholas, who inherited the estate, eventually avenged his father's murder by killing Herthill in 1471.

 

Nicholas Brome seems to have had a taste for violence. According to Henry Ferrers, a later owner of the house, it was soon after inheriting Baddesley Clinton that Nicholas 'slew the minister of Baddesley Church findinge him in his plor (parlour) chockinge his wife under ye chinne, and to expiatt these bloody offenses and crimes he built the steeple and raysed the church body ten foote higher". He was pardoned for this killing by both the King and the Pope. Nicholas seems also to have developed a taste for building, and is thought to have been responsible for the building of much of the earliest part of the house. Baddesley Clinton passed into the hands of the Ferrers family in 1517, through the marriage of Nicholas Brome's daughter, Constance, to Sir Edward Ferrers.

 

The most interesting of the Ferrers is Henry Ferrers (1549-1633), the great-grandson of Sir Edward Ferrers, and contemporary with the times of the Gunpowder Plot. He inherited the property in 1564, and lived through the reigns of Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I and James I, dying in the reign of Charles I. He carried out extensive building, including the wing that contains the Great Hall, as well as adding the Great Parlour above the existing entranceway. He also installed much oak paneling and mantels that are still there as well.

 

Henry Ferrers was an antiquarian, and spent a lifetime collecting historical information, much of which was later used by Sir William Dugdale in the 'Antiquities of Warwickshire'. This interest of his can be seen by the enormous amount of heraldic glass and devices throughout the house. He was trained in the law, and admitted to the Middle Temple in 1572. He may also have served a term as an MP for Cirencester in 1593.

 

After the death of Henry Ferrers, the fortunes of the Ferrers family fluctuated through periods of heavy taxation such as during the Civil War and in the early eighteenth century, followed by attempts by some generations to maintain and improve the property in better times. The last Ferrers in the direct male line, Marmion Edward Ferrers (1813-1884), was so poor that Lady Chatterton, the aunt of his wife Rebecca, and her husband, Edward Heneage Deering, had to come and live with him to share the expense. These two were only married because of a misunderstanding. It is said that Deering came to Lady Chatterly to ask permission to pay address to her niece, but she thought it was a proposal to her, and accepted. Deering, although she was old enough to be his mother, was too chivalrous to set the story straight!

 

The estate passed down through Marmion Edward Ferrer's nephew through several relatives, and it was Mr. Thomas Ferrers-Walker who eventually sold the house to the Government, after which it became part of the National Trust. The Ferrers Archive is kept at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in Stratford-upon-Avon.

 

Henry Ferrers was also a devout Catholic, but a cautious one and was never convicted for recusancy. He must have been aware of the activities of the Vaux sisters, who rented the house from him in the 1590's in order to secretly shelter Father Henry Garnet and other priests, and to be able to conduct catholic services. Soon after they rented the house, Anne Vaux had Nicholas Owen build secret hiding places, including one created out of the sewer and the moat.

 

A spectacular raid on Baddesley in October 1591 was recorded both by Father John Gerard in his Autobiography of an Elizabethan, and also by Father Henry Garnet in a letter to his Jesuit superior, Aquaviva. Several priests, including Garnet and Gerard, as well as lay assistants had risen early and were preparing to leave the house, when it was surrounded and all the approach roads blocked by pursuviants. The stable-boys, knowing that so many horses saddled and ready to go would be suspicious, armed themselves with farm implements and blocked the pursuviants attempt at violent entry. This bought some time for those inside the house, as the pursuviants had to resort to requests, and led them to believe that the lady of the house had not yet arisen. Those outside had to wait patiently, albeit not quietly, while those inside were quickly hiding away the priests, Catholic vestments, and all other signs of the presence of a Catholic priest, including the overturning of their mattresses so that the pursuviants could not feel the warmth.

 

The priests stood in the hiding place in the moat, ankle-deep in cold water for over four hours while the pursuviants tore through the house, although their attempts at intimidation seemed to have far outweighed their skills in searching. Anne Vaux said "here was a searcher pounding the walls in unbelievable fury, there another shifting side-tables, turning over beds. Yet, when any of them touched with their hand or foot the actual place where some sacred object was hidden, he paid not the slightest attention to the most obvious evidence of a contrivance."

 

The searchers turned up nothing, and eventually left after being paid off by Anne Vaux with twelve gold pieces. As Gerard later said, "Yes, that is the pitiful lot of Catholics when men come with a warrant ... it is the Catholics, not the men who send them, who have to pay. As if it were not enough to suffer, they have to pay for their suffering."

 

You can still inspect these hiding places today, and we must say they are not for those who are claustrophobic or faint of heart. Until you actually see them, it is hard to imagine the cramped, damp, dark and tomb-like conditions these priests endured.

 

The first of these is a lath and plaster hutch in the roof above a closet off the bedroom in the gatehouse block. It measures six feet three inches by four feet, and is three feet nine inches high. It contains two wooden benches and is lined with fine hair-plaster.

 

In the corner of the kitchen, where a garderobe once existed, you can see through to the medieval drain where the hiding place used by Father Gerard and Father Garnet was located. At the time, this could only be accessed through the garderobe shaft in the floor of the Sacristy above. A hiding space beneath the floor of the Library was accessed through the fireplace in the Great Parlour, and can now be viewed from the Moat Room. It was in the Library Room that Nicholas Brome was said to have murdered the priest, and it is reputed to be haunted.

 

For an excellent account of the priest holes and the work of Nicholas Owen at Baddesley Clinton, the article Elizabethan Priest Holes : III - East Anglia, Baddesley Clinton, Hindlip by Michael Hodgetts, and published in Recusant History, is a must read.

 

The house itself consists almost entirely of building done by either the Bromes in the fifteenth century or by Henry Ferrers in the sixteenth, and although much repair and alteration work has been carried out inside the house, the panelling, fireplaces and heraldic glass throughout the house all date from the work of Henry Ferrers.

Originally quadrangular in shape, the property today consists of only three blocks, the east including the gatehouse and the Great Parlour, the south containing the Hall, and the west containing the kitchen. The gatehouse and kitchen wing are of grey sandstone, whereas the Hall, which was reconstructed in the 18th century, is of brick.

 

The crenellated gatehouse is one of the house's most interesting features. The lower part with the gun ports was built by Nicholas Brome in the late fifteenth century, and is thought originally to have had a drawbridge. The upper part was re-formed by Henry Ferrers to accommodate the Great Parlour. The brick bridge was built in the early eighteenth century, and the crenelations added in the nineteenth century. The massive carved oak door in the gatehouse leading through to the courtyard dates from Nicholas Brome.

 

The present owners are still undertaking restoration work to enable all the documented priest hides and trapdoors to be made available for viewing, this work includes part of the moat tunnel complex that is presently plugged in order to prevent midges from penetrating into the Sacristy and bedrooms

 

Baddesley Clinton, although still a private dwelling was sold to the Government and passed to the National Trust in 1980 and opened to the public in 1982.

 

The above was copied from "The gunpowder plot" website.

 

Great to place to visit. If only there had been some sun!

 

Alieu Faye owns a cashew farm and maintains a verdant home nursery on the north side of the Gambia River – the nursery and cashew farming training supported by EIF. Faye now has 10 hectares of cashew trees that he has lovingly cultivated from seedlings, and wants to expand his acreage, having seen the profits he's amassing.

 

©Ollivier Girard/EIF

 

If you use one of our photos, please credit it accordingly and let us know. You can reach us through our Flickr account or at eif.secretariat@wto.org

To learn more, visit our website www.enhancedif.org

After Wrotham, I drove the few miles to Kemsimg, though the sat nav did take me on a heck of a tour, but I arrived, and found the church on the east side of the village, next to some sheltered housing.

 

Through the lych gate, I saw the porch door closed, and a white notice flapping in the wind.

 

Sigh,

 

Indeed, not only was the church locked, but those riders and striders would find no refreshments here, nor a sign in sheet either.

 

I took a few shots, waited for the sun to come out to get the church to best effect, then walked back to the car.

 

-------------------------------------------

 

A chocolate-box church in a well-maintained churchyard. The nave is twelfth century in date, remodelled in the fourteenth century when the present roof was constructed. The chancel is also early but was reconstructed in the sixteenth century. A north aisle was added in 1890. The character of the church derives almost entirely from the nineteenth-and twentieth-century furnishings with which it is blessed. The rood screen is of the correct proportion and design and in the main dates from 1894 with minimal amounts of old woodwork. The wonderful figures on top are of 1908 and were designed by Sir Ninian Comper - the angels balance on their wheels like unicyclists! Comper also designed the wall paintings in the chancel, the altar, reredos and canopy. In the north aisle is an interesting collection of furnishings. There is a painted tile picture of Kemsing by the Kent artist Donald Maxwell, one of only a handful to survive. The central window is of two bishops and is typical of Comper's work, but it does not carry his usual signature of a strawberry plant. The west window of the north aisle is by Douglas Strachan, 1935, and is an excellent example of his angular figures. By the font is a bronze Arts and Crafts panel of the Virgin and Child by Henry Wilson, the famous turn-of-the-century designer who lived in a neighbouring village and whose work may also be found in the churchyard.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Kemsing

 

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KEMSING.

THE next parish eastward from Otford is KEMSING, called in the Testa de Nevil, CAMESING, and in the Textus Rossensis, CIMICINGA. (fn. 1) The name of this place seems to have been given to it from some royal camp or fortress, situated here.

 

THIS PARISH of Kemsing, from its situation, is not much known or frequented, nor is it a pleasant one. It lies partly in the valley and partly on the chalk hills, at a small distance southward from the foot of which the village is situated, at the intersection of the roads from Otford to Ightham, and from the chalk hills to the high road by Seal Chart. Near the centre of it is a water, called St. Edith's well, who was a famous female saint, said to have been born in this parish, and to have wrought many miracles for such as applied to her for relief. (fn. 2) The parish is about two miles square; the soil of it, in the northern part, is mostly chalk, in the southern very fertile, it has about one hundred acres of wood; in the eastern part of it is the seat of Crowdleham, situated near the boundary of the parish of Ightham.

 

There was a market antiently kept here on a Monday, by grant from king Henry III. which has been long since discontinued, and a fair, which is still kept on Easter Monday. (fn. 3) There was an old knightly family, who took their surname from this place, being called Kempsing, whose coat of arms was, Argent, a sess and chevron, interlaced sable, which was quartered by the Harts of Lullingstone, in right of Peche, who married the heir general of it. (fn. 4)

 

IN THE SCUTAGE, levied as well on the prelates as the rest of the barons, in the 32d of king Henry II. being the seventh of that reign, towards the expences of the army in Wales. The honour of Kemesing, as it is there called, then being in the king's hands, answered for twenty-nine shillings by the hands of the sheriff of the county. (fn. 5) Soon after which it came into the possession of the earl of Albermarle, who held it of Walter Fitzhelt, as he again did of the king in capite.

 

In the reign of king John, Baldwin de Betun, who, by favour of king Richard I. had enjoyed the earldom of Albermarle, in Hawis his wife's right, who was daughter land sole heir of William le Gross, earl of Albermarle, was owner of this place, and in the 5th year of that reign granted the lordships of Kemesing, Braborne, and Sutton, in this county, to William Mareschal, earl of Pembroke, with Alice, his sole daughter and heir, in frank marriage. (fn. 6)

 

In the reign of king John he attached himself closely to the rebellious barons, when his lands were seised on, as escheats to the crown; and this manor, then valued at thirty-six pounds per annum, as appears by the Testa de Nevil, was granted to Fulke de Brent; on the confiscation of whose estates, and the earl's return to his obedience, he again came into possession of it, which happened on the king's death, his father having persuaded him to return to his loyalty once more, and he had many favours conferred on him by king Henry III. in the 7th year of whose reign he had, for his good services against the Welsh, scutage of all his tenants in this and other counties. In the 10th year of that reign, his first wife being dead, he married Alianore, the king's sister, by which he greatly incurred his displeasure; but a reconciliation quickly after taking place, he was again taken into favour, and in the 14th year of that reign had a confirmation of the manors of Kemsing, Braborne, and Sutton, in this county, upon condition, that in case Alianore, his wife, survived him, she should enjoy them during life. (fn. 7) He died possessed of Kemsing in the 15th year of that reign without issue, and lies buried in the Temple church, having his effigies cross legged on his tomb; on which the sheriff of this county had the king's precept to make livery to Alianore, his widow, of those manors. She, after seven years widowhood, remarried Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester, and steward of England, in St. Stephen's chapel, Westminster, the king giving her away with his own hand.

 

In the 45th year of that reign, the earl of Leicester, heading the discontented barons against the king, continued with them till the battle of Evesham, in the 49th year of it, in which the earl was killed; after whose death, the countess Alianore and her children were forced to forsake England, and she died some time afterwards in the nunnery of Montarges, in France.

 

In the mean time the four brothers of William earl of Pembroke, successively earls of Pembroke, being dead without issue, their inheritance became divided between the heirs of their five sisters and coheirs; and upon the partition of their interest in the manor of Kemsing, it seems to have become the sole property of Roger, eldest son of Maud the eldest sister, by her husband, Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk, (fn. 8) though the time of his coming into the possession of it. I do not find, as Alianore, second wife of William earl of Pembroke, was then living, who was entitled to it for her life.

 

Roger earl of Norfolk, and marshal of England, who bore for his arms, Per pale or and vert, a lion rampant gules, died of a bruise, which he received at a tour nament, about the 54th of Henry III.'s reign, leaving no issue by Isabel his wife, daughter of William king of Scots; upon which he was succeeded, as earl of Norfolk and marshal of the king's palace, as well as in the possession of this manor, by Roger his nephew, son of Hugh his brother, chief justice of England, (fn. 9) who, in the 7th of king Edward I. claimed, before the justices itinerant, large privileges for this manor; (fn. 10) and afterwards, in the 11th year of that reign, sold it, together with the advowson of this church, to Otho de Grandison, descended of a family, who were of the dukedom of Burgundy, in France, their residence there being called Grandison castle, a man of great account with that prince, who employed him much, and conferred many favours on him.

 

In the 18th year of that reign, he obtained free warren for all his demesne lands in Kemsing, (fn. 11) and having had summons to parliament among the barons of this realm, he departed this life without issue, leaving William de Grandison, his brother, his next heir; who died possessed of this manor, leaving by his wife, Sibilla, youngest daughter, and one of the coheirs of John de Tregoze, three sons; Peter de Grandison, his eldest son and heir, who, as well as his father, had summons to parliament; John bishop of Exeter; and Otho; and four daughters. (fn. 12)

 

On his death this manor became the property of Otho, the youngest son, who paid aid for it, in the 20th of king Edward III. as half a knight's fee, which William de Grandison before held in Kemsing of the earl of Leicester. He died possessed of this manor in the 33d year of that reign, (fn. 13) leaving by Beatrix his wife, daughter and coheir of Nicholas Malmains, one son and heir, Thomas, and a daughter, Elizabeth.

 

Thomas de Grandison, being of full age, had possession granted of this manor, among others; he was afterwards knighted, and died possessed of it in the 50th year of king Edward III. without issue, leaving Margaret his wife surviving, who likewise possessed it at her decease, in the 18th year of king Richard II. After which it came to Sir William de Bryene, or Bryan, who died possessed of it in the 19th year of the same reign, and lies buried in Seale church.

 

After his death, Sir William Fynes (whose name was originally spelt Fiennes, but about this time came to be written both Fynes and Fenys) became possessed of it, bearing for his arms, Azure, three lions rampant or. He was son of William Fiennes and Joane his wife, third sister and coheir of William de Say; and by Elizabeth his wife, daughter and heir of William Batisford, left issue two sons, Roger and James; from the former of which were descended the several lords Dacre of the south; and from the latter, the viscounts Say and Seale, both which titles are now extinct, (fn. 14) and the present lord Say and Sele.

 

James, the second son, above mentioned, possessed this manor, and in the 14th of king Henry, VI. was sheriff of this county, and soon afterwards made esquire of the body to that king. In the 24th year of whose reign, being then a knight, he was, by reason that Joane his grandmother was third sister and coheir of William de Say, by a special writ, on March 3d, next year, summoned to Parliament by the title of lord Say and Sele; (fn. 15) and two days afterwards, in consideration of his eminent services, he was, in open parliament, advanced to the dignity of a baron of this realm, by the above title, to him and his heirs male, and in the 27th year of that reign, he had a full confirmation and release of that title from John, lord Clinton, and of the arms of Say, which, on account of his descent from Idonea, the eldest sister of William de Say, might belong to him. In consideration of which he then granted to the lord Clinton, all advowsons of churches, knights fees, &c. which belonged to the latter, by reason of the lordship of Say. (fn. 16)

 

After which he obtained a grant of the office of constable of Dover-castle, and warden of the five ports, to him and his heirs male; was made lord chamberlain, and one of the king's council, and next year lord treasurer of England.

 

This rise to so high a pitch of honour, increased the hatred of the commons towards him, and served but to make his fall the more sudden and unhappy, for next year they accused him and others in the parliament held at St. Edmunds Bury, of treason, for having ing assented to the release of Anjou, and the delivery of Maine to the French; upon which the king, to appease them, sequestered him from his office of treasurer, and shortly after, on the insurrection of the Kentish men, under Jack Cade, observing their clamour against him, to mitigate it, he committed him prisoner to the tower; shortly after which, this riotous mob entering London, and finding their numbers increase, fetched him thence to Guildhall, and there arraigned him before the lord-mayor, and other the king's justices, notwithstanding his request to be tried by his peers; after which hurrying him to the standard in Cheapside, they cut off his head there, and carried it about on a pole, causing his naked body to be drawn at a horse's tail into Southwark, and there hanged and quartered, though his body was afterwards buried in the church of the Grey Friars, London. (fn. 17)

 

He left issue, by Emeline Cromer his wife, one son and heir, Sir William Fienes, who was that year, by special writ, summoned to parliament, being seized of an estate tail of the office of constable of Dover-castle, and warden of the five ports, by virtue of the patent above-mentioned, to James, his father, his interest in which he soon afterwards sold to Humphry, duke of Buckingham, and his heirs male.

 

The unhappy contention subsisting at that time between the houses of York and Lancaster for the throne, in which he risqued not only his person, but his whole fortune, brought him into great distresses, and necessitated him to mortgage, and fell the greatest part of his lands. (fn. 18) He married Margaret the daughter and heir of William Wickham, great-grandson of Agnes, sister to William of Wickham, founder of New College, Oxford. The lands of the lord Say being thus alienated the barony lay dormant, and the heirs male of the family were only called Fienes. Henry, his son and heir, though he used the title of lord Say, had never summons to parliament, and it remained unclaimed till the year 1733, when it was claimed by John Twisleton, esq. of Broughton, in Oxfordshire, descended by the female line from the above Sir William Fienes, lord Say and Sele, which claim, though it then failed, was renewed by his son Thomas, who was summoned to parliament as lord Say and Sele, in 1781, and was father to the present Gregory, lord Say and Sele. In the second year of king Edward IV. Sir William Fienes, lord Say and Sele, mentioned above, sold this manor of Kemsing to Sir Geoffry Bulleyn, (fn. 19) a wealthy mercer of London, who had been lord mayor in the 37th year of king Henry VI. whose grandson Thomas, was sheriff of this county in the 3d and 9th years of Henry VIII. and became a man of great note in that reign; for the king in his 3d year made him one of the knights of his body, and afterwards embassador several times to the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, and in the 17th year of his reign, on account of the great affection which he bore to the lady Anne Bulleyn, his daughter, advanced him to the title of viscount Rochford; and in his 21st year, created him, being then knight of the garter, earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, and made him lord privy seal. (fn. 20) He died in the 30th year of king Henry VIII. possessed of this manor, have ing had by Elizabeth his wife, daughter of Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, one son, George, executed in his life-time, and two daughters; Anne, wife to king Henry VIII. and Mary, wife of William Carey, esq. of the king's body, and ancestor of the lords Hunsdon, and of the earls of Dover and Monmouth.

 

George Bulleyn, the son above-mentioned, bearing the title of viscount Rochford in his father's life-time, was, in the 26th year of that reign, made constable of Dover-castle, and warden of the five ports, and was much favored by that king, till the time of his change of affection from queen Anne Bulleyn; when the king, to make the path more easy towards the enjoyment of his new passion, in a sudden and unexpected gust of anger, in his 28th year, committed him to the tower, a few days after which, he was arraigned and beheaded, having had no issue, and was buried in St. Peter's chapel in the tower. (fn. 21)

 

On the death of the earl of Wiltshire without male issue, the king seized on this manor, in right of his late wife, the unfortunate Anne Bulleyn, the earl's elder daughter; and it remained in his hands till the 32d year of his reign, when by his indenture that year, reciting, that as the most noble lady, Anne of Cleves, daugh ter of John, late duke of Cleve, &c. came into his realm of England, on a certain treaty of marriage between himself and the said lady Anne; which marriage, although celebrated in the face of the church, yet was never consummated, for the conditions of it were never performed in due time, and there being other great and important causes, on account of which the convocation of the realm, with assent of the parties, and of the parliament, had declared the marriage to be invalid, there being no prospect of any children from it, notwithstanding which, the said lady was contented to conform to the laws of the realm, and to free herself and her conscience of the said marriage, and to remain at liberty within the realm; therefore the king, considering her high birth and nobility, of his especial grace and favour, granted her, for the maintenance of her noble estate, among other premises, his manors of Hever, Seale, and Kemsing, and his park of Hever, with all their rights, members, and appurtenances, late belonging to Thomas, earl of Wiltshire, deceased, and then in the king's hands; and all messuages, lands and hereditaments whatsoever, in Hever, Seale, and Kemsing, lately purchased by the king of Sir James Bulleyn, and William Bulleyn, clerk, to hold to her during life, so long as she should stay within the realm of England, and not depart out of it, without the licence of the king and his successors, and the king granted the premises free and discharged of all outgoings, rents, pensions, &c. except among others of forty shillings, issuing yearly out of the lands of John Tybolde, called Seale Park. (fn. 22)

 

¶The lady Ann of Cleves died possessed of these manors and estates in the 4th and 5th year of king Philip and queen Mary, when they reverted again to the crown; where the manors of Seale and Kemsing, and the other premises in those parishes, lay till queen Elizabeth, in her first year, granted them to her kinsman, Sir Henry Carey, whom she had advanced that year to the title of lord Hunsdon, baron of Hunsdon, in Hertfordshire, to hold in capite by knights service. (fn. 23) He was descended of an antient family, seated at Cockington, in Devonshire; one of whom was Sir Robert Carey, who in the beginning of king Henry V's reign, acquired great renown by his encountering and overcoming an Arragonian knight, who had performed many notable feats of arms in different countries, and then came to make trial of his prowess here in England, in a long and doubtful combat in Smithfield; for which he was by the king knighted, and restored to part of his father's inheritance, which had been forfeited. From which time he bore, as by the law of arms he might, the coat armour of the vanquished knight, viz. Argent, on a bend sable, three roses of the field barbed and seeded proper; the present bearing of this family: their antient bearing before this being, Gules, a chevron argent between three swans proper; one of which they still retain for their crest. His son was William Carey, who being in the battle of Tewksbury, in the 10th year of king Edward IV. on the part of the Lancastrians, upon the loss of that day, was taken prisoner, and notwithstanding he was promised a pardon, lost his head.

 

Kemsing is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Rochester, and deanry of Malling.

 

The church stands on the north side of the village, and is dedicated to St. Edith, whose image, set up in this church-yard, was greatly frequented for the singular benefits she daily dispensed in preserving corn and grain from blasting, mill-dew, and other harm incident to it. (fn. 32) It is a small church, consisting of only one isle and a chancel, having a pointed steeple at the west end, in which are two bells. There are but few monuments or inscriptions in it, in the chancel there is a grave-stone, with the figure of a man, and an inscription in brass in black letter, for Thomas de Hop, and at the east end a mural monument for Michael Jermin, D. D. obt. August 14, 1659, æt. 70. (fn. 33)

 

In the year 1397, anno 21 king Richard II. the king granted licence to Guy Mone, to give the advowson of the church of Kemsing to the prior and convent of Bermondsey for ever. (fn. 34) In which year they obtained the pope's bull, (fn. 35) to appropriate it with the chapel of Seale annexed to it, to the use and support of their convent; reserving, nevertheless, out of the fruits, rents, and profits of the church and chapel, for a perpetual vicar to be instituted in it by the ordinary, a fit portion, by which he might be maintained, the episcopal dues be paid, and other burthens incumbent on him might be conveniently borne. (fn. 36)

 

In consequence of which, John (de Bottlesham) bishop of Rochester, by his instrument, dated Oct. 12, anno 1402, (fn. 37) with the consent of the abbot and convent of Bermondesey, endowed the vicarage of this church as follows:

 

First, he decreed, that there should be a perpetual vicarage, to be held and possessed as a perpetual ecclesiastical benefice in the church of Kemsing, which he endowed out of the fruits, rents, and profits of the said church and the chapel of Seale; the vicar of which, who should be intitled to it, by the abbot and convent, proprietaries of this church, should be from time to time presented to the bishop and his successors, and inducted by the archdeacon; and he ordained, that the abbot and convent, and their successors, proprietaries of it, in right of the same, should take, have, and freely enjoy, all and every kind of great tythes, viz. of corn, of whatsoever sort it be, and of hay, growing within the bounds and limits, or titheable places of the church and chapel, the tithe of the grange or field of Budirevere within this parish only excepted; and he ordained, that the repair of the chancel of the church, in the walls, glass windows, and roof, and also the paying of all papal and royal tenths and procurations, and the procurations of legates of the apostolic see, of archbishops, bishops, and archdeacons, (the bishop and his church of Rochester being always saved harmless, on account of this appropriation) should belong to the abbot and convent, and their successors, to be paid and performed at their costs and expences; and he ordained, that the abbot and convent, and their successors, should cause forty pence in money, or meat and drink of as much value, to be yearly distributed to, and bestowed on, the poor, and more indigent parishioners of the church of Kemsing, towards their relief and support, out of the profits of the church; and he ordained, that the tithes of the food of all animals, and of pidgeons, and other titheable matters accruing within the rectory, and the straw of the church and chapel, so long as the rectory should remain in the hands of the abbot and convent, and be in no wife let to ferm, should belong to them, as proprietaries of the parish church; but if the same should be let to ferm, then he ordained, that the tithes of the food of animals, &c. as above-mentioned, should belong to the vicar of the vicarage of the same, for the time being, for ever, with this exception however, that if the abbot and convent should let to ferm any of their stock, with the rectory, no tithe should be taken of that stock; and he ordained, that the abbot and convent should cause to be built at their costs and expences, for that time only, a competent dwelling on a part of the glebe and soil of the rectory allotted for that purpose, in which he ordained, that the vicar for the time being should reside; and he ordained, that the portion of the vicar should be as follows: that he should take and have all oblations and obventions of the altar, as well in the parish church of Kemsing, as in the chapel of Seale, and the small tythes, of what kind or nature soever they be, accruing within the parish of the said church and chapel, and the titheable places of the same, and also all great and small tithes whatsoever, in and of the grange or field called Budyrevere, within the bounds and limits of the parish of the church of Kemsing; and he ordained, that the vicar for the time being should have the cure of all and singular the parishioners of the said church and chapel, and that he should find, at his own costs and expences, a proper chaplain to celebrate divine offices in the said chapel, and duly administer the sacraments and ecclesiastical sacramentals in the same, and also the bread, wine, and lights, necessary and accustomed at the celebrating divine offices in the said church and chapel; and, lastly, he pronounced and declared, that the above was a sufficient and competent portion for the vicar, and such as from it he would be able to support himself, to keep hospitality, and conveniently support the burthens incumbent on him. Which endowment was confirmed by the abbot and convent the day after, under their common seal. (fn. 38)

 

The above appropriation and endowment was confirmed by John Langdon, bishop of Rochester, in 1422, who further ordained, with the consent of the abbot and convent, that no future vicar might have any cause to complain, that he should receive yearly, from the abbot and convent, fourteen shillings of English money, beyond the portion before assigned to him as before-mentioned; and it was then agreed between the bishop and the abbot and convent, that the bishop should receive in future, out of the fruits and profits of the said church and chapel, 6s. 8d. yearly of English money, as an indemnity to the church of Rochester for any injury it might have received, by reason of the appropriation of this church and chapel.

 

All which was confirmed by the abbot and convent, under their common seal, the day and year abovementioned. (fn. 39)

 

On the dissolution of the monastery of St. Saviour's, Bermondesey, which happened in the 29th year of king Henry VIII. this church, with the chapel of Seale annexed was surrendered, among the rest of the possessions of that house, into the king's hands, and became part of the possessions of the crown, after which queen Elizabeth granted this rectory to Sir Peter Manwood; in king Charles I's reign, it was in the possession of James Bunce, esq. whose descendant, James Bunce, esq. of Crowdleham, in this parish, is the present owner of it.

 

But the advowson of the vicarage seems to have been granted, with the manor of Kemsing, to Henry Carey, lord Hunsdon, since which it has continued unalienated, for many generations, the property of the earls and dukes of Dorset, and is now in the possession of his grace John Frederick duke of Dorset.

 

In the 15th year of king Edward I. this church was valued at fifteen marcs. (fn. 40)

 

¶By virtue of the commission of enquiry into the value of church livings, in 1650, issuing out of chancery, it was returned, that here was a parsonage and vicarage; the parsonage tithes being about forty pounds per annum, and the glebe land thereunto belonging, worth ten pounds, master Bunce being patron, but it was then sequestered, and that the vicarage, tythes, and house, were worth one hundred pounds per annum; that there was issuing out of the parsonage to the vicar, by composition from the abbot, two pounds per annum, and by the will of master Bunce six pounds per annum, in all eighteen pounds, master Barton then incumbent. (fn. 41)

 

This vicarage, with Seale annexed, is valued in the king's books at 19l. 13s. 4d. and the yearly tenths at 1l. 9s. 4d.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol3/pp32-50

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_paper

 

Toilet paper is a soft paper product (tissue paper) used to maintain personal hygiene after human defecation or urination. Its origin dates back as far as 1862. It differs in composition somewhat from facial tissue, and is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom and facial tissues do not.

 

In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, toilet paper is not used. Also, in many parts of the world such as India, people consider using water a much more clean and sanitary practice than using paper. Cleansing is then performed with other methods or materials, such as water, for example using a bidet, rags, sand, leaves (including seaweed), corn cobs, animal furs, sticks or hands, afterwards hands are washed with soap.

 

One tree produces about 100 pounds of toilet paper and about 83 million rolls are produced per day. An average American uses 50 pounds of toilet paper per year which is 50% more than Western countries or Japan. Millions of trees are harvested in North America and in Latin American countries leaving ecological footprint concerns. Unbleached toilet paper is no longer manufactured due to consumer resistance to using "brown toilet paper". In its place, oxygen-bleached (AKA peroxide-bleached) paper is made as the "green" alternative.

www.toiletpaperhistory.net/toilet-paper-history/used-befo...

 

www.toiletpaperhistory.net/toilet-paper-history/used-befo...

Widespread acceptance of the product didn’t officially occur until a new technology demanded it. At the end of the 19th century, more and more homes were being built with sit-down flush toilets tied to indoor plumbing systems. And because people required a product that could be flushed away with minimal damage to the pipes, corncobs and moss no longer cut it. In no time, toilet paper ads boasted that the product was recommended by both doctors and plumbers.

 

. . . In 1928, the Hoberg Paper Company tried a different tack. On the advice of its ad men, the company introduced a brand called Charmin and fitted the product with a feminine logo that depicted a beautiful woman. The genius of the campaign was that by evincing softness and femininity, the company could avoid talking about toilet paper’s actual purpose. Charmin was enormously successful, and the tactic helped the brand survive the Great Depression.

 

www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12318915/

Environmental groups are asking Americans to switch to recycled paper towels, napkins, tissue paper and toilet paper as a way to save virgin forests and the wildlife they shelter . . . No top-selling household paper product uses recycled content, and activists believe that the industry prefers it that way — stocking store shelves with brands that compete over softness, a quality that comes from virgin tree fiber.

 

Seventh Generation, one of the largest recycled producers, estimates that:

 

One million trees would be saved if every U.S. household replaced just one 250-count package of virgin fiber napkins with 100 percent recycled ones.

544,000 trees would be saved by replacing a 70-sheet roll of virgin fiber paper towels.

424,000 trees would be spared by replacing a 500-sheet roll of virgin fiber toilet paper.

170,000 trees would be saved by replacing one 175-count box of virgin fiber facial tissue.

 

www.associatedcontent.com/article/332611/how_to_save_tree...

Really consider if you can cut down by even a square or two each time you frequent the bathroom. We are not talking about being unhygienic here, but most can cut back by 10-20% and not be aware of the change. Saving 10% could result in a dozen rolls a year or more

CLARK AIR BASE, Philippines (March 30, 2022) - U.S. and Philippine Air Force maintainers discuss maintenance operations in a deployed environment during Balikatan 22, at Clark Air Base, Philippines, March 30, 2022. Balikatan is an annual exercise between the Armed Forces of the Philippines and U.S. military designed to strengthen bilateral interoperability, capabilities, trust, and cooperation built over decades of shared experiences. Balikatan 22 is the 37th iteration of the exercise and coincides with the 75th anniversary of U.S.-Philippine security cooperation. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Gunnery Sgt. Steve Cushman) 220330-M-BQ183-0115

 

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www.instagram.com/indopacom | www.flickr.com/photos/us-pacific-command; | www.youtube.com/user/USPacificCommand | www.pacom.mil/ **

 

Euskal Trenbide Sarea - Red Ferroviaria Vasca: la sencilla estación de Gaintxurizketa, con una vía general y otra de apartado. Como otras estaciones de la red de ETS, aún conserva el paso peatonal entre andenes. A la izquierda, la doble vía de ancho ibérico de la línea de Madrid a Hendaye.

 

Euskal Trenbide Sarea - Red Ferroviaria Vasca: the simple Gaintxurizketa station, with a main track and a siding. Like other stations in the ETS network, it still maintains the pedestrian crossing between platforms. On the left, the Iberian gauge double track of the line from Madrid to Hendaye.

The Treasurer's House in York, North Yorkshire, England, is a Grade I listed historic house owned by the National Trust, who also maintain its garden. It is located in Minster Yard, directly to the north of York Minster.

 

The first Treasurer for York Minster was appointed in 1091 when the office was established by Archbishop of York Thomas of Bayeux, but all that remains of his original house is an external wall which forms part of Grays Court and sections of 12th-century masonry in the present Treasurer's House for which it is uncertain whether they are in-situ or have been reused. As the controller of the finances of the Minster the Treasurer required a grand residence to be able to entertain important guests.

 

The residence served in this capacity until 1547, when the Reformation of the English Church brought the job of Treasurer to an end. The last Treasurer surrendered the house to the crown on 26 May and it was granted to Protector Somerset by whom it was sold to Archbishop Robert Holgate. Thomas Young, Archbishop between 1561 and 1568, and his descendants are responsible for the structure of house as it is today. In the early 17th century the Young family added the symmetrical front and almost entirely rebuilt the house. In 1617, the Treasurer's House played host to royalty when Sir George Young entertained King James I. The house then passed through a number of private owners including Lord Fairfax and over time was sub-divided into separate tenements.

 

The house was restored to its present state by Frank Green, a wealthy local industrialist, who between 1897 and 1898 bought each part of the house. He appointed Temple Moore to restore the house and remove numerous earlier additions. This work was mostly completed by 1900 before Prince Albert Edward, Princess Alexandra of Denmark and Princess Victoria visited in June the same year. When Frank Green retired and moved away from York in 1930 the house and its contents were given to the National Trust. This marked the first time both a private home and its original furnishings had ever been given to the Trust.

 

The house was built directly over one of the main Roman roads leading out of Roman York to the North. During major structural changes, carried out by Green, four Roman column bases were uncovered, one of which remains in-situ in the cellar.

 

Several ghosts reportedly haunt the house, including that of George Aislaby, who owned the property in the seventeenth century. However, the most notable haunting is by a group of Roman soldiers who have been witnessed in the cellar, firstly by a party guest of Frank Green and then many years later during restoration works carried out by the National Trust.[9] In 1953, local 18-year-old apprentice plumber Harry Martindale was repairing pipe work in the cellar, the National Trust having decided to remove the coal-fired central heating installed by Green. After about four hours of work at the top of his ladder, Martindale became aware of a musical sound, resembling a series of repeated single trumpet-like notes. The sound grew in intensity until, just below his ladder, Martindale reported that he saw a soldier, wearing a plumed helmet, emerge from the wall, followed by a cart horse and about nine or ten pairs of other Roman soldiers. Martindale fell, terrified, from his ladder and stumbled into a corner to hide. The soldiers appeared to be armed legionaries, visible only from the knees up, in a marching formation, but were "scruffy". They were distinctive in three ways: they carried round shields on their left arms, they carried some kind of daggers in scabbards on their right side and they wore green tunics. When they descended to the level of the Roman road, on which Martindale had stood his ladder, he was able to see that they wore open sandals with leather straps to the knees.

 

The experience so frightened Martindale that it was several weeks before he returned to his job as a plumber. Many years later, excavations in the city revealed that the descriptions of the soldiers' dress given by Martindale, at first dismissed as anomalous, in fact matched those of local reserve soldiers who took over the Roman garrison when the regular soldiers began returning to Rome in the fifth century. During the course of his long life Martindale recounted his experience many times, but never changed any of the details and always refused any payment.

 

The Treasurer's House was visited in the first episode of the Discovery Channel television series Ghosthunters.

The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a landmark which consists of more than 2,773 five-pointed terrazzo-and-brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, directors, producers, musicians, theatrical/musical groups, fictional characters, and others.

 

The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce, who hold the trademark rights, and maintained by the self-financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist attraction, receiving an estimated 10 million annual visitors in 2010.

 

The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Gower Street to the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway at La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment on Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood Boulevard and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually—more than the Sunset Strip, the TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art combined—and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.

 

As of 2023, the Walk of Fame comprises 2,752 stars, which are spaced at 6-foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral-pink terrazzo five-point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft-repeated inaccuracy) inlaid into a charcoal-colored terrazzo background. The name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters in the upper portion of each star. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree's contributions. The emblems symbolize six categories within the entertainment industry:

 

Circular 4-inch brass plaque showing a side view of a classic movie camera. Classic film camera representing motion pictures.

Circular 4-inch brass plaque with a tube-type television with twin aerials. Television receiver representing broadcast television.

Circular 4-inch brass plaque with a top view of phonograph disc and pickup arm. Phonograph record representing audio recording or music.

Circular 4-inch brass plaque with an antique studio-style microphone. Radio microphone representing broadcast radio.

Circular 4-inch brass plaque with the classic theatrical comedy/tragedy masks. Comedy/tragedy masks representing theater/live performance (added in 1984).

[image needed] Athletic trophy representing sports entertainment (added in 2023).

Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47% have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24% in television, 17% in audio recording or music, 10% in radio, fewer than 2% in theater/live performance, and fewer than 1% in sports entertainment. According to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce, approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.

 

Locations of individual stars are not necessarily arbitrary. Stars of many particularly well-known celebrities are found in front of the TCL (formerly Grauman's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar-winners' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre,[citation needed] site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Locations are occasionally chosen for ironic or humorous reasons: Mike Myers's star lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore's star and Daniel Craig's star are located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of their titular role in the James Bond 007 film series; Ed O'Neill's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character's occupation on the TV show Married ... with Children; and The Dead End Kids' star is located at the corner of LaBrea and Hollywood Boulevard.

 

Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber. Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood. George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition. Lin-Manuel Miranda chose a site in front of the Pantages Theatre where his musicals, In The Heights and Hamilton, played. Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination" and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty-six years later, at her request, Burnett's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox—in front of the theater.

 

Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees. For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles; the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge; and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree's corporate logo. The "Friends of the Walk of Fame" monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor's corporate logo, with the sponsor's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering. Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.

 

The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, each bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., and Michael Collins), the date of the first Moon landing ("7/20/69"), and the words "Apollo XI", are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine.

 

The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamour and excitement in the four corners of the world". Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, received credit in an independent account. A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955, the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.

 

Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel, which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Ovation Hollywood complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre—displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration. By another account, the stars were "inspired ... by Sugarman's Tropics Restaurant drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars".

 

In February 1956, a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts) inside a blue star on a brown background. However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood", because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.

 

By March 1956, the final design and coral-and-charcoal color scheme had been approved. Between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant,[32] and they included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.

 

A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed to create a separate award for the music industry, leading to the first Grammy Awards in 1959.

 

Construction of the Walk began in 1958, but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first lawsuit was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $1.25 million tax assessment (equivalent to $13 million in 2022) levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959, the assessment was ruled legal. The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.

 

While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first person to receive a star on the Walk of Fame—possibly because she was the first to be photographed with it—the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was holding up permanent construction. The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look. The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence. Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960. On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower.

 

Although the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to nearby suburbs. After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962, the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City" about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so. In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas. In July 1978, the city of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument.

 

Radio personality, television producer, and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction. Beginning in 1968, Grant stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star's unveiling ceremony. Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star" until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s.

 

In 1980, Grant instituted a fee of $2,500 (equivalent to $8,879 in 2022), payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden. The fee has increased incrementally over time. By 2002, it had reached $15,000 (equivalent to $24,405 in 2022), and stood at $30,000 in 2012 (equivalent to $38,240 in 2022). As of 2023, the fee was $75,000, about nine times the original amount adjusted for inflation.

 

Grant was himself awarded a star in 1980 for his television work. In 2002, he received a second star in the "special" category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk. He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall, among others). He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special-category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood", is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.

 

In 1984, a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to acknowledge contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.

 

In 1994, the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood" gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame" star. At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000th star on the Walk.

 

During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) removed and stored more than 300 stars. Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money-saving measure of jackhammering the 3-by-3-foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed; but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.

 

In 2023, a sixth category, Sports Entertainment, was added to acknowledge contributions of athletes to the entertainment industry.

 

In 2008, a long-term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities' stars received "D" grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. Plans were made to repair or replace at least 778 stars at an estimated cost of over $4 million.

 

The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro B Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.

 

To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame" program was inaugurated, with donors recognized through honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre. The program has received some criticism; Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz", and quoted a brand strategist who said, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave".

 

Los Angeles introduced the "Heart of Hollywood Master Plan", which promotes the idea of closing Hollywood Boulevard to traffic and creating a pedestrian zone from La Brea Avenue to Highland Avenue, citing an increase in pedestrian traffic including tourism, weekly movie premieres and award shows closures, including ten days for the Academy Award ceremony at the Dolby Theatre. In June 2019, the city of Los Angeles commissioned Gensler Architects to provide a master plan for a $4 million renovation to improve and "update the streetscape concept" for the Walk of Fame. Los Angeles city councilmember Mitch O'Farrell released the draft master plan designed by Gensler and Studio-MLA in January 2020. It proposed widening the sidewalks, adding bike lanes, new landscaping, sidewalk dining, removing lanes of car traffic and street parking between the Pantages Theater (Gower Street) at the east and The Emerson Theatre (La Brea Avenue) at the west end of the boulevard. The approved phase one includes removing the parking lanes between Orange Drive and Gower Street, adding street furnishings with benches, tables and chairs with sidewalk widening. Phase two is in the schematic stage. Phase two is planned for 2024 and will include closing down the boulevard to two lanes, adding landscaping with shade trees and five public plazas made up of art deco designed street pavers and kiosks. Planned to be completed by 2026, funding is being raised for the $50 million project.

 

Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame selection committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or their management approves the nomination. Nominees must have a minimum of five years' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions". Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 to 24 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within two years of selection. If the ceremony is not scheduled within two years, a new application must be submitted. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.

 

A fee of $75,000 (as of 2023), payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree. The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash.

 

Actor Matt Damon's star under construction, showing the brass star-shaped rim, exposed wire grid foundation, brass letters attached to two horizontal brackets, and the Motion Picture emblem, prior to pouring of pink terrazzo

Actor Matt Damon's star under construction, August 2007

Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the Chamber disclosed the members' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry). Since that 1999 announcement, the chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field".

 

In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the Chamber's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients. In 2016, the chair, according to the Chamber's 2016 selection announcement, was film producer Maureen Schultz. In 2023, the selection committee chair was radio personality Ellen K.

 

Moon Landing monument, with square pink terrazzo surround (not the usual charcoal color), with light gray terrazzo Moon disk showing TV emblem at top and the brass lettering "Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin and Michael Collins, 7/20/69, Apollo XI"

One of the four monuments recognizing the Apollo 11 astronauts at the corners of Hollywood and Vine

Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the six major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to adjust interpretations of its rules to justify a selection. The Walk's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry." Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch". Magic Johnson was added to the motion picture category based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.

 

Muhammad Ali's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance". Its placement on a wall of the Dolby Theatre makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali's request that his name not be walked upon, as he shared his name with the Prophet Muhammad.

 

All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition. The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland. Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.

 

Entertainers with multiple stars

The original selection committees chose to recognize some notable entertainers' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars.

 

Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories.

 

Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories; Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth wife, Jan Chamberlin,[87][88] while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers.

 

Thirty-three honorees, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.

 

Over a dozen have two stars:

Dolly Parton, for her solo work and part of the trio made up of her, Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt;[91]

Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jacksons;

Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work;

Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles;

John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr as individuals and as members of The Beatles.

George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.

Walt Disney, has stars in two different categories for his work in both film and television; in addition, Mickey Mouse (who was originally voiced by Walt Disney) and Disneyland have stars.

Bette Davis has one star each for film and television.

Alfred Hitchcock has stars in two different categories for his work in both film and television.

Jean Hersholt, for film and radio

Hattie McDaniel, for film and radio

Judy Garland, one for motion pictures and another for recording

Arlene Francis, for radio and television

Cass Daley, for radio and television

Kermit the Frog, has an individual star for television and as a member of The Muppets for film.

Cher forfeited her opportunity to join this list by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983. She did, however, attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998, as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband, Sonny Bono.

 

Sixteen stars are identified with a one-word stage name (e.g., Liberace, Pink, Roseanne, and Slash). Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star references his Betty Lou character. The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.

 

Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present-day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the pop singer (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street).

 

The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make-up.[citation needed] Other make-up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only two costume designers have received a star: eight-time Academy Award Winner Edith Head, and the first African-American to win an Oscar for costume design, Ruth E. Carter.

 

Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays for such films as The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer (1947) before becoming a novelist. The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60-year period.

 

Nine inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman, inventor of roll film; Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion-picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the triode vacuum tube, which played an important role in the development of radio and television broadcasts, and Phonofilm, which made sound films possible; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency-hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi-Fi networks and cellular telephone systems; and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the first video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise-reduction system.

 

A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two Presidents of the United States, Ronald Reagan (40th President) and Donald Trump (45th President), have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger. One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars. Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s.

 

On its 50th anniversary in 2005, Disneyland received a star near Disney's Soda Fountain on Hollywood Boulevard. Stars for commercial organizations are only considered for those with a Hollywood show business connection of at least 50 years' duration. While not technically part of the Walk itself (a city ordinance prohibits placing corporate names on sidewalks), the star was installed adjacent to it.

 

There are three dogs represented on the walk, Lassie, Rin Tin Tin, and Strongheart.

 

Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956, but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act—and exonerated—during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s), but more likely due to his left-leaning political views. The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. Chaplin's star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award. Even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.

 

The committee's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, the controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist. The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.

 

In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star, and nearly twenty more followed over the next decades. Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins, the kaiju Godzilla, the live-action dog named Lassie, Pee-Wee Herman as portrayed by Paul Reubens, animated film characters such as Shrek and Snow White, and animated television characters including the Simpsons and the Rugrats.

 

Jim Henson is one of four puppeteers to have a star, but also has a further three stars dedicated to his creations: one for The Muppets as a whole, one for Kermit the Frog and one for Big Bird.

 

In 2010, Julia Louis-Dreyfus' star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus". The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected. A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke's star in 1993 ("Vandyke"), and rectified. Film and television actor Don Haggerty's star originally displayed the first name "Dan". The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame. For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki-born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller", possibly due to mistranscription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.

 

Monty Woolley's star, showing a "TV" emblem, even though his category is "Motion Pictures"

"Motion Picture" category, "TV" emblem

Four stars remain misspelled: the opera star Lotte Lehmann (spelled "Lottie"); King Kong creator, director, and producer and Cinerama pioneer Merian C. Cooper ("Meriam"); cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière ("August"); and radio comedienne Mary Livingstone ("Livingston").

 

Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the line "Time flies when you're having fun", is officially listed in the motion picture category, but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem. Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work. Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem, although her official category is motion pictures. Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree, but his star displays a film camera.

 

Acts of vandalism on the Walk of Fame have ranged from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers and paint to damage with heavy tools. Vandals have also tried to chisel out the brass category emblems embedded in the stars below the names, and have even stolen a statue component of The Four Ladies of Hollywood. Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.

 

Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart's and Kirk Douglas' stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry's five stars was also stolen from a construction area. Another theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove Gregory Peck's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.

 

Donald Trump's star, obtained for his work as owner and producer of the Miss Universe pageant, has been vandalized multiple times. During the 2016 presidential election, a man named James Otis, who claims to be an heir to the Otis Elevator Company fortune, used a sledgehammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism and was arrested and sentenced to three years' probation. The star was repaired and served as a site of pro-Trump demonstrations until it was destroyed a second time in July 2018 by a man named Austin Clay. Clay later surrendered himself to the police and was bailed out by James Otis. Clay was sentenced to one day in jail, three years of probation, and 20 days of community service. He also was ordered to attend psychological counseling and pay restitution of $9,404.46 to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. On December 18, 2018, the star was defaced with swastikas and other graffiti drawn in permanent marker, and it was vandalized yet again on October 2, 2020.

 

In August 2018, the West Hollywood City Council unanimously passed a resolution requesting permanent removal of the star due to repeated vandalism, according to Mayor John Duran. The resolution was completely symbolic, as West Hollywood has no jurisdiction over the Walk. Activist groups have also called for the removal of stars honoring individuals whose public and professional lives have become controversial, including Trump, Bill Cosby, Kevin Spacey, and Brett Ratner. In answer to these campaigns, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce announced that because the Walk is a historical landmark, "once a star has been added ... it is considered a part of the historic fabric of the Hollywood Walk of Fame" and cannot be removed.

 

The Hollywood and La Brea Gateway is a 1993 cast stainless steel public art installation by architect Catherine Hardwicke.[ The sculpture, popularly known as The Four Ladies of Hollywood, was commissioned by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of the entertainment industry. The installation consists of a square stainless steel Art Deco-style structure or gazebo, with an arched roof supporting a circular dome that is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood" on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weather vane-style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch. The corners of the domed structure are supported by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West representing African-American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian-American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and Brooklyn-born actress Mae West. The installation stands at the western end of the Hollywood Walk of Fame at the corner of Hollywood Boulevard and North La Brea Avenue.

 

The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years", representing the opposite of Hardwicke's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman's historic gateway to Hollywood", he wrote, "couldn't be more explicitly described".

 

Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders". "Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion." Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism" of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown."

 

In June 2019, the Marilyn Monroe statue above the gazebo was stolen by Austin Clay, who had vandalized Donald Trump's star a year earlier.

 

Recording artist Michael Jackson's star, surrounded by flowers, candles, and cards, as observed about two weeks after his death in 2009

Michael Jackson's star, about two weeks after his death in 2009

Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars. Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition a devoted band of elderly women scrub and polish it once a month".

 

The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example, Bette Davis in 1989, Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011. The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Bruce Lee, Farrah Fawcett, Elizabeth Taylor Charles Aznavour, Richard Pryor, Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra, Robin Williams, Joan Rivers, George Harrison, Aretha Franklin, Stan Lee, and Betty White have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.

 

California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2 million residents across a total area of approximately 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the most populated subnational entity in North America and the 34th most populous in the world. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second and fifth most populous urban regions respectively, with the former having more than 18.7 million residents and the latter having over 9.6 million. Sacramento is the state's capital, while Los Angeles is the most populous city in the state and the second most populous city in the country. San Francisco is the second most densely populated major city in the country. Los Angeles County is the country's most populous, while San Bernardino County is the largest county by area in the country. California borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, the Mexican state of Baja California to the south; and has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the west.

 

The economy of the state of California is the largest in the United States, with a $3.4 trillion gross state product (GSP) as of 2022. It is the largest sub-national economy in the world. If California were a sovereign nation, it would rank as the world's fifth-largest economy as of 2022, behind Germany and ahead of India, as well as the 37th most populous. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second- and third-largest urban economies ($1.0 trillion and $0.5 trillion respectively as of 2020). The San Francisco Bay Area Combined Statistical Area had the nation's highest gross domestic product per capita ($106,757) among large primary statistical areas in 2018, and is home to five of the world's ten largest companies by market capitalization and four of the world's ten richest people.

 

Prior to European colonization, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America and contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico. European exploration in the 16th and 17th centuries led to the colonization of California by the Spanish Empire. In 1804, it was included in Alta California province within the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence, but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War. The California Gold Rush started in 1848 and led to dramatic social and demographic changes, including large-scale immigration into California, a worldwide economic boom, and the California genocide of indigenous people. The western portion of Alta California was then organized and admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850, following the Compromise of 1850.

 

Notable contributions to popular culture, for example in entertainment and sports, have their origins in California. The state also has made noteworthy contributions in the fields of communication, information, innovation, environmentalism, economics, and politics. It is the home of Hollywood, the oldest and one of the largest film industries in the world, which has had a profound influence upon global entertainment. It is considered the origin of the hippie counterculture, beach and car culture, and the personal computer, among other innovations. The San Francisco Bay Area and the Greater Los Angeles Area are widely seen as the centers of the global technology and film industries, respectively. California's economy is very diverse: 58% of it is based on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific, and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5% of the state's economy, California's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state. California's ports and harbors handle about a third of all U.S. imports, most originating in Pacific Rim international trade.

 

The state's extremely diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. The Central Valley, a major agricultural area, dominates the state's center. California is well known for its warm Mediterranean climate and monsoon seasonal weather. The large size of the state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains.

 

Settled by successive waves of arrivals during at least the last 13,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America. Various estimates of the native population have ranged from 100,000 to 300,000. The indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct ethnic groups, inhabiting environments from mountains and deserts to islands and redwood forests. These groups were also diverse in their political organization, with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered social and economic relationships between many groups.

 

The first Europeans to explore the coast of California were the members of a Spanish maritime expedition led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. Cabrillo was commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the Viceroy of New Spain, to lead an expedition up the Pacific coast in search of trade opportunities; they entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542, and reached at least as far north as San Miguel Island. Privateer and explorer Francis Drake explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579, landing north of the future city of San Francisco. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain, putting ashore in Monterey. Despite the on-the-ground explorations of California in the 16th century, Rodríguez's idea of California as an island persisted. Such depictions appeared on many European maps well into the 18th century.

 

The Portolá expedition of 1769-70 was a pivotal event in the Spanish colonization of California, resulting in the establishment of numerous missions, presidios, and pueblos. The military and civil contingent of the expedition was led by Gaspar de Portolá, who traveled over land from Sonora into California, while the religious component was headed by Junípero Serra, who came by sea from Baja California. In 1769, Portolá and Serra established Mission San Diego de Alcalá and the Presidio of San Diego, the first religious and military settlements founded by the Spanish in California. By the end of the expedition in 1770, they would establish the Presidio of Monterey and Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo on Monterey Bay.

 

After the Portolà expedition, Spanish missionaries led by Father-President Serra set out to establish 21 Spanish missions of California along El Camino Real ("The Royal Road") and along the Californian coast, 16 sites of which having been chosen during the Portolá expedition. Numerous major cities in California grew out of missions, including San Francisco (Mission San Francisco de Asís), San Diego (Mission San Diego de Alcalá), Ventura (Mission San Buenaventura), or Santa Barbara (Mission Santa Barbara), among others.

 

Juan Bautista de Anza led a similarly important expedition throughout California in 1775–76, which would extend deeper into the interior and north of California. The Anza expedition selected numerous sites for missions, presidios, and pueblos, which subsequently would be established by settlers. Gabriel Moraga, a member of the expedition, would also christen many of California's prominent rivers with their names in 1775–1776, such as the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River. After the expedition, Gabriel's son, José Joaquín Moraga, would found the pueblo of San Jose in 1777, making it the first civilian-established city in California.

  

The Spanish founded Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1776, the third to be established of the Californian missions.

During this same period, sailors from the Russian Empire explored along the northern coast of California. In 1812, the Russian-American Company established a trading post and small fortification at Fort Ross on the North Coast. Fort Ross was primarily used to supply Russia's Alaskan colonies with food supplies. The settlement did not meet much success, failing to attract settlers or establish long term trade viability, and was abandoned by 1841.

 

During the War of Mexican Independence, Alta California was largely unaffected and uninvolved in the revolution, though many Californios supported independence from Spain, which many believed had neglected California and limited its development. Spain's trade monopoly on California had limited the trade prospects of Californians. Following Mexican independence, Californian ports were freely able to trade with foreign merchants. Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá presided over the transition from Spanish colonial rule to independent.

 

In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave the Mexican Empire (which included California) independence from Spain. For the next 25 years, Alta California remained a remote, sparsely populated, northwestern administrative district of the newly independent country of Mexico, which shortly after independence became a republic. The missions, which controlled most of the best land in the state, were secularized by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government. The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ranchos or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become a commodity until the 1849 California Gold Rush.

 

From the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California. The early government of the newly independent Mexico was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government. During this tumultuous political period Juan Bautista Alvarado was able to secure the governorship during 1836–1842. The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by Anglo-American residents of California, including Isaac Graham. In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to the Graham Affair, which was resolved in part with the intercession of Royal Navy officials.

 

One of the largest ranchers in California was John Marsh. After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as the best route to follow, which became known as "Marsh's route". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California. He invited immigrants to stay on his ranch until they could get settled, and assisted in their obtaining passports.

 

After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, Manuel Micheltorena and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. The armies of each met at the Battle of Providencia near Los Angeles. Marsh had been forced against his will to join Micheltorena's army. Ignoring his superiors, during the battle, he signaled the other side for a parley. There were many settlers from the United States fighting on both sides. He convinced these men that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born Pio Pico was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the United States.

 

In 1846, a group of American settlers in and around Sonoma rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterward, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma. The Republic's only president was William B. Ide,[65] who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. This revolt by American settlers served as a prelude to the later American military invasion of California and was closely coordinated with nearby American military commanders.

 

The California Republic was short-lived; the same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican–American War (1846–48).

 

Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay in 1846 and began the U.S. military invasion of California, with Northern California capitulating in less than a month to the United States forces. In Southern California, Californios continued to resist American forces. Notable military engagements of the conquest include the Battle of San Pasqual and the Battle of Dominguez Rancho in Southern California, as well as the Battle of Olómpali and the Battle of Santa Clara in Northern California. After a series of defensive battles in the south, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing a censure and establishing de facto American control in California.

 

Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) that ended the war, the westernmost portion of the annexed Mexican territory of Alta California soon became the American state of California, and the remainder of the old territory was then subdivided into the new American Territories of Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah. The even more lightly populated and arid lower region of old Baja California remained as a part of Mexico. In 1846, the total settler population of the western part of the old Alta California had been estimated to be no more than 8,000, plus about 100,000 Native Americans, down from about 300,000 before Hispanic settlement in 1769.

 

In 1848, only one week before the official American annexation of the area, gold was discovered in California, this being an event which was to forever alter both the state's demographics and its finances. Soon afterward, a massive influx of immigration into the area resulted, as prospectors and miners arrived by the thousands. The population burgeoned with United States citizens, Europeans, Chinese and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. By the time of California's application for statehood in 1850, the settler population of California had multiplied to 100,000. By 1854, more than 300,000 settlers had come. Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000.

 

The seat of government for California under Spanish and later Mexican rule had been located in Monterey from 1777 until 1845. Pio Pico, the last Mexican governor of Alta California, had briefly moved the capital to Los Angeles in 1845. The United States consulate had also been located in Monterey, under consul Thomas O. Larkin.

 

In 1849, a state Constitutional Convention was first held in Monterey. Among the first tasks of the convention was a decision on a location for the new state capital. The first full legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850–1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852–1853), and nearby Benicia (1853–1854); these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854 with only a short break in 1862 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to flooding in Sacramento. Once the state's Constitutional Convention had finalized its state constitution, it applied to the U.S. Congress for admission to statehood. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California became a free state and September 9 a state holiday.

 

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), California sent gold shipments eastward to Washington in support of the Union. However, due to the existence of a large contingent of pro-South sympathizers within the state, the state was not able to muster any full military regiments to send eastwards to officially serve in the Union war effort. Still, several smaller military units within the Union army were unofficially associated with the state of California, such as the "California 100 Company", due to a majority of their members being from California.

 

At the time of California's admission into the Union, travel between California and the rest of the continental United States had been a time-consuming and dangerous feat. Nineteen years later, and seven years after it was greenlighted by President Lincoln, the First transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869. California was then reachable from the eastern States in a week's time.

 

Much of the state was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat, other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.

 

In the nineteenth century, a large number of migrants from China traveled to the state as part of the Gold Rush or to seek work. Even though the Chinese proved indispensable in building the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah, perceived job competition with the Chinese led to anti-Chinese riots in the state, and eventually the US ended migration from China partially as a response to pressure from California with the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.

 

Under earlier Spanish and Mexican rule, California's original native population had precipitously declined, above all, from Eurasian diseases to which the indigenous people of California had not yet developed a natural immunity. Under its new American administration, California's harsh governmental policies towards its own indigenous people did not improve. As in other American states, many of the native inhabitants were soon forcibly removed from their lands by incoming American settlers such as miners, ranchers, and farmers. Although California had entered the American union as a free state, the "loitering or orphaned Indians" were de facto enslaved by their new Anglo-American masters under the 1853 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians. There were also massacres in which hundreds of indigenous people were killed.

 

Between 1850 and 1860, the California state government paid around 1.5 million dollars (some 250,000 of which was reimbursed by the federal government) to hire militias whose purpose was to protect settlers from the indigenous populations. In later decades, the native population was placed in reservations and rancherias, which were often small and isolated and without enough natural resources or funding from the government to sustain the populations living on them. As a result, the rise of California was a calamity for the native inhabitants. Several scholars and Native American activists, including Benjamin Madley and Ed Castillo, have described the actions of the California government as a genocide.

 

In the twentieth century, thousands of Japanese people migrated to the US and California specifically to attempt to purchase and own land in the state. However, the state in 1913 passed the Alien Land Act, excluding Asian immigrants from owning land. During World War II, Japanese Americans in California were interned in concentration camps such as at Tule Lake and Manzanar. In 2020, California officially apologized for this internment.

 

Migration to California accelerated during the early 20th century with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to the greatest in the Union. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported California's population as 6.0% Hispanic, 2.4% Asian, and 89.5% non-Hispanic white.

 

To meet the population's needs, major engineering feats like the California and Los Angeles Aqueducts; the Oroville and Shasta Dams; and the Bay and Golden Gate Bridges were built across the state. The state government also adopted the California Master Plan for Higher Education in 1960 to develop a highly efficient system of public education.

 

Meanwhile, attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and the state's wide variety of geography, filmmakers established the studio system in Hollywood in the 1920s. California manufactured 8.7 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking third (behind New York and Michigan) among the 48 states. California however easily ranked first in production of military ships during the war (transport, cargo, [merchant ships] such as Liberty ships, Victory ships, and warships) at drydock facilities in San Diego, Los Angeles, and the San Francisco Bay Area. After World War II, California's economy greatly expanded due to strong aerospace and defense industries, whose size decreased following the end of the Cold War. Stanford University and its Dean of Engineering Frederick Terman began encouraging faculty and graduates to stay in California instead of leaving the state, and develop a high-tech region in the area now known as Silicon Valley. As a result of these efforts, California is regarded as a world center of the entertainment and music industries, of technology, engineering, and the aerospace industry, and as the United States center of agricultural production. Just before the Dot Com Bust, California had the fifth-largest economy in the world among nations.

 

In the mid and late twentieth century, a number of race-related incidents occurred in the state. Tensions between police and African Americans, combined with unemployment and poverty in inner cities, led to violent riots, such as the 1965 Watts riots and 1992 Rodney King riots. California was also the hub of the Black Panther Party, a group known for arming African Americans to defend against racial injustice and for organizing free breakfast programs for schoolchildren. Additionally, Mexican, Filipino, and other migrant farm workers rallied in the state around Cesar Chavez for better pay in the 1960s and 1970s.

 

During the 20th century, two great disasters happened in California. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and 1928 St. Francis Dam flood remain the deadliest in U.S. history.

 

Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze known as "smog" has been substantially abated after the passage of federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.

 

An energy crisis in 2001 led to rolling blackouts, soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. Southern California Edison and Pacific Gas and Electric Company came under heavy criticism.

 

Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase; a modest home which in the 1960s cost $25,000 would cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses they never intended to live in, expecting to make a huge profit in a matter of months, then rolling it over by buying more properties. Mortgage companies were compliant, as everyone assumed the prices would keep rising. The bubble burst in 2007–8 as housing prices began to crash and the boom years ended. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared as many financial institutions and investors were badly hurt.

 

In the twenty-first century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred in the state. From 2011 to 2017, a persistent drought was the worst in its recorded history. The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive, most notably Camp Fire.

 

Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze that is known as "smog" has been substantially abated thanks to federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.

 

One of the first confirmed COVID-19 cases in the United States that occurred in California was first of which was confirmed on January 26, 2020. Meaning, all of the early confirmed cases were persons who had recently travelled to China in Asia, as testing was restricted to this group. On this January 29, 2020, as disease containment protocols were still being developed, the U.S. Department of State evacuated 195 persons from Wuhan, China aboard a chartered

The Brisbane Courier

Wed 22 Aug 1866

 

HOLMES' CAMP

(From our own correspondent)

 

A proof of the present state of this portion of the line was given yesterday. Some twentyfive navvies, who had been working near Helidon, armed themselves with sticks and guns and perambulated the upper portions of the line, with the avowed intetion of compelling all who might be out of work to join them in a general emeute. Luckily they had so badly arranged their plans that, ere they had been in the open air many minutes, the whole of their policy was laid bare and means taken to circumvent them. Sergeant Raleigh, who has been for some time stationed at Fountain's Camp, immediately on hearing of the intentions of this body of men, followed in their wake, with the view of maintaining peace and order, but did not consider it necessary to telegraph to Ipswich for any reinforcements, as the men had promised to conduct themselves in such a manner as would prevent any breach of the peace. On the arrival of the men at this camp they complained of hunger, and went to Mr Dixon's, who gave them about forty pounds of meat; next to Mr Davidson's, where they obtained tea and sugar; and after that they visited two bakers, and got a goodly allowance of bread; but all without any attempt at intimidation. They camped for the night, and expressed their intention of proceeding to Toowoomba, and enlisting as many of the unemployed as would join them, with a view of proceeding to Brisbane, to lay their grievances before the authoritees; but, after going about three miles, without receiving any sympathy from the men on the line, considered that discretion was the better part of valor, and retired from the contest, going home again in a body. Too much praise cannot be given to Sergeant Raleigh for the firm but yet considerate manner in which he and the men under his charge acted throughout - nipping the affair in the bud, and giving the men no chance of creating a disturbance.

 

Petty robberies are still very numerous, and it is really essential that some permanent force should be stationed here, this being the most populous part fo the line, and without any protection.

 

Today was the usual sub-day, but again there is no money. Many of the navvies have been looking forward anticipating they would receive something to carry on with, but they are now left to the tender mercies of the storekeeper, who will not give one shilling credit to any of them; the consequence therefore is, they must either borrow or starve, and then comes the question, "Where will it end?"

 

Queensland State Archives Digital Image ID 3383

Spanish postcard by Archivo Bermejo, no. C-222. Photo: M.G.M. Publicity still for The Outrage (Martin Ritt, 1964).

 

Handsome Lithuanian-born actor Laurence Harvey (1928–1973) achieved fame as the Jack the Lad of British cinema. He is best known for his lead performance as a ruthless social climber in Room at the Top (1959).

 

Laurence Harvey was born in the town of Joniškis, Lithuania in 1928. He maintained throughout his life that his birth name was Laruschka Mischa Skikne, but it was actually Zvi Mosheh Skikne. He was the youngest of three boys born to Ella Skikne Zotnickaita and Ber Skikne, a Lithuanian Jewish family. Aged five, his family emigrated to South Africa, where he was known as Harry Skikne. He grew up in Johannesburg, and as a teenager he served with the entertainment unit of the South African Army during the Second World War in Egypt and Italy. After moving to London, he enrolled in the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art where he became known as Larry. After leaving RADA early, he began to perform on stage in regional theatre. He made his cinema debut as Laurence Harvey in the British horror film House of Darkness (Oswald Mitchell, 1948). After this the Associated British Picture Corporation (ABPC) offered him a two year contract and he appeared in several of their lower budget films such as the film noir Man on the Run (Lawrence Huntington, 1949) starring Derek Farr, and the narcotics crime drama Cairo Road (David MacDonald, 1950). After failing in the commercial theater in London's West End, Harvey joined the company of the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre at Stratford-upon-Avon for the 1952 season. His film career got a boost when he appeared in Women of Twilight (Gordon Parry, 1952) opposite René Ray. This crime drama was made by Romulus Films who signed Harvey to a long-term contract. He secured a small role in a Hollywood film, Knights of the Round Table (Richard Thorpe, 1953), and was cast with Rex Harrison in King Richard and the Crusaders (David Butler, 1954). That year he also played Romeo in Renato Castellani's adaptation of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1954), narrated by John Gielgud. Patrick Hunter at IMDb: “a very worthwhile movie, especially for Shakespeare fans. I personally think Laurence Harvey is a terrific Romeo. Yes, he's a bit of a simp, but that's the character. In fact, Harvey is the screen's best Romeo; he's a lot more passionate than Leslie Howard in the MGM version, and he speaks the verse better than either DiCaprio or Leonard Whiting in the two subsequent versions.”

 

Laurence Harvey was now established as an emerging British star. He was cast as the writer Christopher Isherwood in I Am A Camera (Henry Cornelius, 1955), with Julie Harris as Sally Bowles. Later, the musical Cabaret would also be based on the same books by Christopher Isherwood. Harvey also appeared on American TV and on Broadway. He made his Broadway debut in 1955 in the play Island of Goats. The play closed after one week, though his performance won Harvey a 1956 Theatre World Award. A hit in France was the film Three Men in a Boat (Ken Annakin, 1956) with Shirley Eaton. Harvey appeared twice more on Broadway, in 1957 with Julie Harris, Pamela Brown and Colleen Dewhurst in William Wycherley's The Country Wife, and as Shakespeare's Henry V in 1959, as part of the Old Vic company, which featured a young Judi Dench as Katherine, the Daughter of the King of France. Jon C. Hopwood writes at IMDb: “The colorful Harvey, a press favorite, became notorious for his high-spending, high-living ways. He found himself frequently in debt, his travails faithfully reported by entertainment columnists. More fame was to come.“ His breakthrough to international stardom came in 1959 when he was cast as the social climber Joe Lampton in Room at the Top (Jack Clayton, 1959). The film was produced by British film producing brothers Sir John and James Woolf of Romulus Films and Remus Films. For his performance, Harvey received a BAFTA Award nomination and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor, the first person of Lithuanian descent to be nominated for an acting Oscar. His co-star, Simone Signoret, did win the Oscar for her performance. Room at the Top (1959) and Look Back in Anger (Tony Richardson, 1959) inaugurated the ‘kitchen sink’ cinema, the New Wave that revolutionized Britain’s film industry.

 

During the 1960s, Laurence Harvey appeared in several major films. He starred in Butterfield 8 (Daniel Mann, 1960) opposite Elizabeth Taylor, and John Wayne's epic The Alamo (1960), released within a month of each other. Harvey was then cast in the film version of the war drama The Long and the Short and the Tall (Leslie Norman, 1961) with Richard Todd. The role had earlier made Peter O'Toole prominent in the West End, but O'Toole was not yet established in cinema and Harvey was clearly more ‘bankable’. Other films included Walk on the Wild Side (Edward Dmytryk, 1962) with Barbara Stanwyck, a young Jane Fonda and Capucine; the film adaptation of Tennessee Williams' Summer and Smoke (Peter Glenville, 1961) with Geraldine Page, and Darling (John Schlesinger, 1965) with Julie Christie and Dirk Bogarde. He also appeared as a brainwashed former Korean War POW in the Cold War thriller The Manchurian Candidate (John Frankenheimer, 1962). He became very good friends with his co-star Frank Sinatra, and was a member in good standing of high society, then dubbed ‘The Jet Set’. His career began to decline from the mid-1960s. The remake of W. Somerset Maugham's Of Human Bondage (Ken Hughes, 1964) was a failure, as was The Outrage (Martin Ritt, 1964) starring Paul Newman, a remake of Akira Kurosawa's classic Rashômon (1950). Harvey reprised his Oscar-nominated role as Joe Lampton in the sequel Life at the Top (Ted Kotcheff, 1965), but the film was not a success. Harvey returned to Britain to make the comedy The Spy with a Cold Nose (Daniel Petri, 1966) with Daliah Lavi. His last hurrah was his appearance in the spy thriller A Dandy in Aspic (1968), of which he took the direction over after the original director Anthony Mann died during shooting. In settlement of a dispute with Woodfall Films over the rights to The Charge of the Light Brigade (Tony Richardson, 1968), Woodfall cast him in their version as a Russian prince. He performed as cast, but was never seen as the Prince in the finished film. The only part of his performance remaining in the final cut is a brief appearance of him in the background of one shot, as an anonymous member of a theatre audience.

 

Laurence Harvey played out his career largely in undistinguished films, TV work and the occasional supporting role in a major production. In The Magic Christian (Joseph McGrath, 1969), he recited Hamlet's soliloquy, almost nude and very thin. A promising project, Orson Welles's The Deep (1970) with Jeanne Moreau, was never finished. One of his better performances from this period was in an episode of Rod Serling's TV series Night Gallery (1971). He was also guest murderer of the week on Columbo: The Most Dangerous Match (1973) as a chess champion who murders his opponent. He directed himself in the last picture in which he appeared, Welcome to Arrow Beach (1974). Harvey was married three times. In 1957 he married actress Margaret Leighton, whom he had met on the set of The Good Die Young (1954). They divorced in 1961. His second marriage in 1968 was to Joan Perry Cohn, who was 17 years his senior and the widow of film mogul Harry Cohn of Columbia Pictures. Finally he married Paulene Stone. Harvey met Stone on the set of A Dandy in Aspic, and while still married to Cohn he became a father for the first time when Stone gave birth to a daughter, Domino, in 1969. Eventually, Harvey divorced Cohn and married Stone in 1972. Harvey was bisexual. His long-term lover was his manager James Woolf, who had discovered Harvey in the 1950s. A heavy smoker and drinker, Harvey died from stomach cancer in 1973. He was only 45. His daughter, Domino (1969–2005), who worked as a bounty hunter, was only 35 when she died. They are buried together in Santa Barbara Cemetery in Santa Barbara, California, USA.

 

Sources: Jon C. Hopwood (IMDb), Wikipedia and IMDb.

St Edmundsbury Abbey, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk

 

Deep within the soil of Suffolk, the germ of memory sleeps. Generations forget; their history is effaced, and they are left oblivious, aware only of their surroundings. They no longer ask how they got here. And then, the soil is turned, the plough cleaves the furrow, and the past is revealed. And sometimes memory sleeps on the surface; we do not even know that we have forgotten.

 

Between about 1530 and 1570, England underwent a cultural revolution, a process as violent and traumatic as anything that has happened in our history. In less than half a century, England went from being a complex and clumsy melange of largely self-governing Catholic communities which looked to Rome as much as they did to London, to being an insular and centralised Protestant nation where power was maintained by the sword.

 

The process was not complete. The pendulum continued to swing, and by the mid 17th century England had become a theocracy, with political policy based on an explosive mixture of Biblical fundamentalism and a misguided sense of destiny. At Drogheda, Cromwell's troops would dutifully slaughter the women and children of the town, safe in the knowledge that they were doing God's work. Of course, the evil they were rooting out was the very religion that their forefathers had shared, for generations.

 

Suffolk retains one of the most powerful testimonies to the glory of that former age, and to the violence of its destruction. And yet, for generations it was almost completely forgotten.

 

It is Saturday, September 9th, 2000. I am standing in the ruins of the great abbey of St Edmundsbury, writing this. I am in what was probably the scriptorium, where generations of monks copied texts borrowed from other monasteries, or came here to copy the monastery's own, building up the great libraries of the Middle Ages. They worked on the Gospels, and other books of the Bible. They copied the works of the spiritual fathers, and the classical histories.

 

The task was laborious, but was an act of prayer and contemplation in itself. Even making the materials became a meditation; the ink was prepared in a base of egg white and honey; the bright colours of the illustrations came from crushing precious stones.

 

The atoms of silicon in those stones are identical to the ones in the microchips inside the laptop I'm using. They will convert my words into a pure digital stream, which will move at the speed of light. Your computer contains more of these silicon atoms, these precious stones. They will download and reconvert my digital stream into a language that is the bastard son of the Latin in which the monks wrote, and the vulgar tongue of the townspeople beyond the walls.

 

I wander through the chapter house, and into the great north transept of the Abbey church itself. The monks in the scriptorium made the same journey, whenever the bells rang for the daily offices. I am now standing in one of the largest Romanesque churches in Europe. In my mind, I live and relive what it would have been like to be here then.

 

Sometimes books aren't enough, and sometimes they tell us what we'd really rather not know. Any decent local history will tell you about the glories of Bury Abbey, about its run-ins with the local people, the riots and the riches, of how it lived and died. Now, this is all very well, but more interesting I think is the possibility of sensing what it was like to live here as an ordinary monk in, say, the 13th century. Fortunately, the daily life of Bury Abbey is one of the best documented of all lost medieval communities, and it is in a county with some of the most enthusiastic local historians. Did you know that the Suffolk Records Office is the most used in the entire country?

 

In the scriptorium that I have just left, a monk called Jocelin of Brakelond wrote a chronicle of this Abbey and its times; it is effectively the story of the adolescence of the county of Suffolk. A difficult time, with troubles still to come.

 

For most people, there are two big surprises about the ruins of the Abbey. Firstly, how extensive they are, and secondly how tamed and domesticated they appear in the large and pleasant Abbey Gardens, in this most pleasant of all East Anglian towns. The outer Abbey wall, which housed and contained the Abbey outbuildings, still survives to a greater extent, forming the boundary of the park, and with some very nice 18th and 19th century houses built into it since.Two of the conventual churches, St James (now the Anglican cathedral) and St Mary, survive pretty well intact, along with a wall and charnel house of a third, St Margaret. So do two of the gateways; one is still the main entrance to the park, and the other is considered one of the finest survivals in England, temporarily houses the Anglican cathedral bells.

 

But it is the ruins of the great Abbey church of St Edmund that astound. A vast, cruciform building, it was more than 500 feet long and 200 feet wide. You could fit Suffolk's biggest parish church, St Peter and St Paul at Lavenham, into the nave and transepts four times, and still have room for Thornham Parva up in the sanctuary. One is able to trace it almost in entirety, apart from the south aisle and west front, which have been swallowed up by later buildings.

 

And the setting! At the end of the apse are municipal tennis courts, with an incongruous bowling green tucked in beside the north transept. A children's playground, a rose garden, a museum (the 'St Edmundsbury Experience') all surround it. You would be harsh to hate it, I think, because it gives the people of the town a sense of ownership; for these ruins are wholly accessible at all times the park is open, and, miracle upon miracle, entrance is completely free.

 

So, how did this extraordinary building come to be here? How is it that one of the great churches of Europe was destroyed?

 

The story starts some 30 miles east of here, in the village of Rendlesham, near Woodbridge. Unlikely as it may seem, this was almost certainly the capital of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of East Anglia. Today, despite being relatively suburban, and on the edge of a large former American airbase, there is still a haunting sense of the remote past, enhanced by the forests that ride the ridges of the heathland. Here lived the Wuffingas, the Saxon royal family. Most prominent among them was Redwald, King from 599 to 625. A pragmatic man, he established his kingdom as one of the primary trading areas of north west Europe. In the Gipping valley, his quays, workshops and settlements coagulated into Gyppeswick, the modern Ipswich. By the 8th century, it was the largest town we know of in northern Europe.

 

We should not be surprised that his capital and trading port were in the south east extremity of his kingdom, any more than we should be surprised that London, England's capital today, is also in the south east. For Redwald was a European, a federalist rather than an empire builder. For him, it was trade rather than conquest that built up his fabulous wealth. In an essential act of embracing the European sphere, Redwald became a Christian; but it was said that in his palace at Rendlesham he kept two altars, one for the Christian God he had adopted, and one for the pagan gods of his forefathers, for he was a pragmatist to the last.

 

And, at the last, his body was taken slowly in procession from the Christian church at Rendlesham, across the heathlands, until on Sutton Hoo it was met by a huge ship which had been dragged up from the Deben estuary below. There, he was buried in it, along with weapons, clothes, armour, musical instruments, jewellery, symbols of sovereignty; the signs of his majesty and trading might. His son, Sigebert, carried the Christian torch after his death. And now, Chritianity became a way for the Wuffingas to reinforce their sovereignty.

 

Sigebert invited representatives of the Church into his kingdom. From Burgundy came St Felix, a beacon of Roman orthodoxy.From the monasteries of the north came St Fursey, steeped in Celtic spirituality. Later, from Germany, came St Botolph, architect of monasticism. From his cathedral at Dumnoc, the modern Walton, Felix directed the consecration of Minsters in the trading communities of the Kingdom. Sigebert also turned to the monastic life. He set off westwards, towards the limits of his kingdom, and at a place called Bedricsworth established a community of like-minded souls, the rest of their lives devoted to prayer and contemplation.

 

Which might easily have been the end of the story, of course; Bedricsworth was just one of many Christian communities of the time. Some have disappeared into oblivion, and it might have been one of these. But there are others where the germ of memory has thrived, and taken root. One of these was a place called Lindisfarne, some 300 miles to the north. There, a similar community were going about their morning round of prayer and farmwork in the summer of the year 793, when a group of long, low boats were sighted on the eastern horizon. The boats landed on the shore below the monastery, a place that is still a harbour today. The sailors climbed to the monastery, and sacked it. They killed most of the monks, stole the produce of the farm and the furnishings of the church, and burned the monastery down. And then they left, returning to where they had come from.

 

It was the Vikings, of course. Over the next fifty years, the attacks of these Danish hordes increased along the entire eastern seaboard, both in number and ferocity. The Kingdom of East Anglia was wide open to their depredations. Gippeswyck was obvious game, the richest trading port in the land. The Saxons, mainly farmers, craftsmen and small traders, were powerless. What the Kingdom needed was a hero.

 

His name was Edmund. From his headquarters at Rendlesham, he set out to drive the heathen invader from the land. A king leading his troops into battle, he became more than a figurehead. He was an icon. And then, in 869, in a parish called Hellesdun, which was probably the modern Hoxne but may have been Bradfield St George, he was captured by Danish troops. In front of the assembled Saxon prisoners, he was mercilessly butchered, Danish troops firing hundreds of arrows into his body at close range.

 

Who can separate legend from fact at such a distance? The story is that the corpse was decapitated, the head being thrown into a thicket. Saxon soldiers dispersed in the battle slowly returned, to find the headless body of their king. They searched for three days, and eventually came upon a giant wolf, guarding the head of Edmund between its paws. The body was taken to an unknown place called Sutton, which may have been Sutton Hoo, or possibly Sutton in the parish of Bradfield St George, or perhaps somewhere else. Within a generation, hagiographies were being written, Edmund's sainthood secure.

 

The cult grew. Some fifty years after the martyrdom, the remains were translated to the Abbey at Bedricsworth; it became a major centre of pilgrimage, as people came from all over to seek the favours of the martyr king, the symbol of resistance to the Danes. Within the century, it is being called by its new name, the name it has today, Burgh, or Bury, St Edmunds.

 

A few years later, came a crisis; the monastery was no longer judged a safe place for the bones to lie, either because of the Danish war, or more likely the inefficiency of the community. It was translated to London in 1010, where it lay in St Paul's churchyard. In 1013 it was returned to Bury, but only on the condition that the community was replaced with one that followed the rule of St Benedict. Secular priests had proved unreliable.

 

The magnitude of Edmund's cult can best be judged by the fact that at Domesday in 1086, the monastery had 300 separate holdings of land throughout the east of England. About 70 of them were in the western part of Suffolk, including Long Melford and Mildenhall, and almost the entire area to the north and east of the monastery itself, as far as the Norfolk border. The Abbey had complete legal jurisdiction over the eight Hundreds of West Suffolk, which was known as the Liberty of St Edmund, and roughly corresponded to the West Suffolk County Council area which survived until 1974.

 

The Abbey church was rebuilt about this time, the tomb of St Edmund being erected in 1095. The body was translated into it with great ceremony, along with the bodies of St Jurmin, brother of St Etheldreda and son of King Anna of Blythburgh, and what Norman Scarfe wittily calls 'at least part of St Botolph'. It took another 100 years before the rest of the building was finished. The town around was built up, with the construction of a grid of streets and hundreds of houses. It was a medieval new town.

 

The monastery reached the apex of its power in the late 12th century under the charismatic Abbot Samson, familiar to East Anglians as a symbol of the Greene King brewery. By now, there were about a hundred monks and secular priests in residence, and as many again of workers and servants. Parliaments met here, monarchs arrived with their retinues. History was made. The library became one of the intellectual centres of Europe, with more than 2,000 volumes. Visitors to the Abbey describe it in the terms one would use of a great city. It was the glory around which Suffolk gathered and spread, the pulsing heart of all power and spirituality.

 

Fortunately, it is still possible for us to see what the Abbey church of St Edmund was like. We can do so by travelling 30 miles to the north west, to the tiny beautiful city of Ely in Cambridgeshire. There, we find a Cathedral of roughly the same proportion, configuration and style. Replace Ely's famous lantern tower with a spire, and the illusion is complete. The south west tower of Ely survives (that to the north west fell in the 17th century) and we can see the same south west tower at Bury, surviving as part of the building overlooking the square between St James and St Mary. Here is a good place to start. Beyond and beside are modern buildings, so to explore the rest of the Abbey church ruins we must go through the gate to the north-east of St James - or, if this is locked, as it sometimes is, back out on to Angel Hill, and into the park through the Abbey gateway.

 

The best approach to the ruins is then found by bearing right, up past the bowling green, and into the conventual buildings beside the north transept. These include the scriptorium and chapter house, where we will find modern graveslabs marking the site of the burials of Samson and other former Abbots. We then step into the north transept. Towering columns and walls surround us; like melting icebergs, or wax. It is easy to visualise them as the remains of walls and pillars, but we need to be careful. What we are seeing are, in fact, the remains of the flint rubble cores. All that we see now would have been hidden behind sheaths of dressed stone, a tiny part of which survives, facing the base of some parts of the ruin. What we see now was never meant to be seen.

 

As we walk into the crossing, we can turn west to look down the vast nave, the stumpy cores marking the arcades that separated off the north and south aisles. We can imagine the triforia above them, and the roof far off beyond that. The great pillars of the crossing are the most substantial survivals, and we can see how they would have supported the vaulting. Turning to face the east, we must imagine the high altar some 70 feet beyond, high in the sanctuary. Behind it stood the tomb of St Edmund, after Canterbury and Walsingham the greatest goal of pilgrimage in Medieval England.

 

Your imagination needs to be slightly keener for the chancel and the sanctuary, because the crypt beneath has been exposed, and nothing of the original floor level survives. In the crypt, we see clearly the little chapels that led off the central space, and cores and some modern slabs mark the spots where columns supported the vaulting above.

 

This crypt was excavated after the Second World War, and in one of the chapels we see the stone base of an altar, one of only three such survivals in Suffolk - the others are at Orford castle chapel, and the Ipswich Blackfriars church. Now, children clamber and explore where once prayer was offered and Masses celebrated. On a plaque in the crossing, the meeting of the Barons on the eve of Magna Carta is commemorated.

 

On the 20th of January 1465, a great fire ravaged the Abbey. It destroyed all the roofs, and brought down the central tower and spire. It seems unlikely that they could have been completely replaced in the short life the Abbey had left. Earlier in its history, the Abbey had had more than a few run-ins with the local people. The main point of contention seems to have been that the freedoms obtained in charter form by other Boroughs were not made available to those under the control of the monastery. In 1327, the townspeople rioted, and spent three days occupying and trashing the Abbey.

 

The Abbot seems to have pacified them with a charter of their own, but a revenge attack by monks on the congregation of one of the churches led to an ongoing civil war in the town that had to be put down by the Sheriff of Norfolk. During the Peasants Revolt of 1381, several prominent government figures, including the Chief Justice and the Collector of Taxes, sought refuge in the Abbey; but by now there seems to have been considerable collusion between the monks and the townsfolk, for the refugees were handed over, and publicly butchered in the market place. This created such a scandal that Bury town and Abbey were only readmitted to the King's Peace a year after everywhere else in England.

 

We have a record of the last years of the Abbey in the work of John Lydgate, who came from the Suffolk village of Lidgate. He records that the Abbey gave a quarter of its income in relief to the poor of the Liberty, and distributed food and alms at its gates daily. The guesthouses were open to all, even the poorest of pilgrims; St Edmund's Abbey was no longer a centre for the wealthy.

 

In 1538, the monasteries were dissolved, their possessions were sold off, and the monks all given pensions. Senior monks that protested too loudly were put to death. The money from the sale of goods accrued to the crown, and the land also. One intriguing question is what happened to the body of Edmund at the Dissolution. Many Saints' bones were desecrated and publicly exhibited, paraded in the street before being burned, or fashioned into clumsy weapons, musical instruments or hockey sticks, in a grisly attempt to demonstrate that they held no spiritual power.

 

The less ideologically-driven reformers were conspiring to sell the relics abroad, reasoning that the money European churches were willing to pay for them could legitimately be counted as the wealth of the church that was to accrue to the state. So, were the bones of St Edmund sold or desecrated? At the Dissolution, the commissioners write of the huge size of the tomb, that it was comberous to deface, and mention the loot sequestered from the Abbey itself, but there is no mention of the corpse of St Edmund, and nothing to reveal its whereabouts.

 

In an elegant and fascinating essay entitled St Edmund's Corpse: Defeat into Victory, Norman Scarfe records the presence of a skeleton in the Cathedral of St Sernin, Toulouse, labelled Corpus S Eadmundi Regis Anglie ('The body of Saint Edmund, King of the English'). This corpse was in the cathedral certainly as early as 1270, and the story that was current by the late 16th century was that it had been stolen from the shrine at Bury in the year 1216, during the anarchy of the Barons' War.

 

Whoever this body was, it was offered back to the English Church in 1901, at the time of the consecration of Westminster Cathedral. Cardinal Vaughan, the leader of the English Church at the time, readily accepted the offer of renewing the shrine in his new Cathedral, and the corpse was brought by train to Dieppe, and thence to Newhaven in Sussex, where it was kept in the chapel of the Duke of Norfolk's house at Arundel, until the new shrine was ready.

 

At this point, things started to go awry. A correspondence in the press revealed the considerable doubts of historians and theologians that the corpse could possibly be that of St Edmund. The Cardinal lost his nerve, and the corpse was never translated to Westminster. And so, at Arundel it remains, a century on. It could be Edmund, I suppose. More likely, perhaps, the bones were buried quietly at night by members of the chapter, when it became clear what the writing on the wall was saying. In which case, they lie beneath the soil of Bury to this very day.

 

After the Reformation, some great English Abbey churches became cathedrals, but that did not happen here. And yet, it so easily might have done. Way back in 1070, some 500 years previously, Herfast, Bishop of East Anglia, decided to move his See from Thetford to Bury. It had moved about a bit already over the previous 400 years, from Walton to North Elmham before Thetford. But now, after the Norman Conquest, the idea was that Cathedrals would be glorified; already, vast edifices were being raised in Durham, London and Ely. Bury was the obvious place for the Diocese of East Anglia to sit. However, such a move would have cut off the Abbey's independent direct line with Rome, and placed it under the jurisdiction of the Province of Canterbury. The community was determined that this would not happen, and Abbot Baldwin sent representations to the Pope that ensured the survival of the Abbey's independence.

 

Bishop Herfast would not be allowed to glorify his position in East Anglia in the way his colleagues were doing elsewhere. His successor, Herbert de Losinga, was more determined. But Bury was a lost cause; instead, he chose to move his See to a thriving market town in the north east of his Diocese; a smaller, more remote place than Bury, to be sure; but proximity to the Abbey of St Edmund was perhaps not such a good thing anyway - it tended to cast a rather heavy shadow. And so it was that the great medieval cathedral of the East Anglian bishops came to be built, instead, at Norwich.

 

Five hundred years later, the Dioceses of Norwich and Ely, into which Suffolk evenly fell, were not large; and, in any case, they were loyal to the crown. The same could not be said of the Abbey, where the community was still fiercely independent of the State; as at Walsingham, of course, where the Abbey church was destroyed even more effectively.

 

For two centuries after the dissolution, the Abbey effectively became a quarry for the people of Bury, who carted off its stone for other buildings. By the end of the 17th century, what had happened here had been virtually forgotten. The Protestant Cultural Revolution in England was at its height. It wiped the people's collective memory of their Catholic past. History was at least resurfaced, if not selectively rewritten. But the enlightenment of the 18th century saw a rekindled passion for history, especially among those with the leisure to pursue it. How fascinating and remote these ruins must have seemed by then! What stories the ordinary people must have told about them!

 

With the 19th century revival came a new respect for the medieval past, but it was not until the 1950s that these ruins were properly opened up to the people of Suffolk, their true inheritance.

 

My son, unlike me, was born in Suffolk. He is seven*, and takes these ruins as a fait accompli - his mind can't possibly reconstruct what was here before. Instead, he invents universes, oceans of possibility and imagination, as far from the world today as that which Abbot Sampson inhabited. He clambers on the ruins with other children, the north wall of the transept becoming a sea cliff, the steps into the crypt a Himalayan mountain path. As far as he is concerned, anything might have happened here.

 

And that's what archaeology mostly is, I suppose; it's about narrowing down the possibilities. It is about finding the cord that leads all the way back.

 

People wander aimlessly about these ruins - you'll never be alone here. Is this the same spiritual thirst that sends them into medieval churches? When they aren't locked, that is.

 

Or is it something more primal, some human need to open up a perspective on where we have come from; and thus, who we are. The Church of Felix, Fursey, Botolph and Edmund has undergone many changes in the 1300 years or so since their adventures were played out on the fields of Suffolk. Most recently, at the Second Vatican Council, it taught us about the Journey of Faith, that life is a pilgrimage towards God. And, of course, we've already come a long way.

 

Simon Knott, September 2000

 

*Or, he was when I wrote this piece in 2000.

Vishnu (/ˈvɪʃnuː/; Sanskrit: Viṣṇu) is a popular Hindu deity, the Supreme God of Vaishnavism (one of the three principal denominations of Hinduism) and one of the three supreme deities (Trimurti) of Hinduism. He is also known as Lord Narayana and Lord Hari. As one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition, He is conceived as "the Preserver or the Protector" within the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the divinity.

 

In Hindu sacred texts, Vishnu is usually described as having dark complexion of water-filled clouds and as having four arms. He is depicted as a blue being, holding a padma (lotus flower) in the lower left hand, the Kaumodaki gada (mace) in the lower right hand, the Panchajanya shankha (conch) in the upper left hand and the discus weapon Sudarshana Chakra in the upper right hand.

 

Adherents of Hinduism believe Vishnu's eternal and supreme abode beyond the material universe is called Vaikuntha, which is also known as Paramdhama, the realm of eternal bliss and happiness and the final or highest place for liberated souls who have attained Moksha. Vaikuntha is situated beyond the material universe and hence, cannot be perceived or measured by material science or logic. Vishnu's other abode within the material universe is Ksheera Sagara (the ocean of milk), where he reclines and rests on Ananta Shesha, (the king of the serpent deities, commonly shown with a thousand heads). In almost all Hindu denominations, Vishnu is either worshipped directly or in the form of his ten avatars, the most famous of whom are Rama and Krishna.

 

The Puranabharati, an ancient text, describes these as the dashavatara, or the ten avatars of Vishnu. Among the ten described, nine have occurred in the past and one will take place in the future as Lord Kalki, at the end of Kali Yuga, (the fourth and final stage in the cycle of yugas that the world goes through). These incarnations take place in all Yugas in cosmic scales; the avatars and their stories show that gods are indeed unimaginable, unthinkable and inconceivable. The Bhagavad Gita mentions their purpose as being to rejuvenate Dharma, to vanquish those negative forces of evil that threaten dharma, and also to display His divine nature in front of all souls.

 

The Trimurti (three forms) is a concept in Hinduism "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer, preserver or protector and Shiva the destroyer or transformer." These three deities have also been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity", all having the same meaning of three in One. They are the different forms or manifestation of One person the Supreme Being or Narayana/Svayam Bhagavan.

 

Vishnu is also venerated as Mukunda, which means God who is the giver of mukti or moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirths) to his devotees or the worthy ones who deserve salvation from the material world.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The traditional explanation of the name Vishnu involves the root viś, meaning "to settle" (cognate with Latin vicus, English -wich "village," Slavic: vas -ves), or also (in the Rigveda) "to enter into, to pervade," glossing the name as "the All-Pervading One". Yaska, an early commentator on the Vedas, in his Nirukta, (etymological interpretation), defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, "one who enters everywhere". He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, "that which is free from fetters and bondages is Vishnu".

 

Adi Shankara in his commentary on the Sahasranama states derivation from viś, with a meaning "presence everywhere" ("As he pervades everything, vevesti, he is called Vishnu"). Adi Shankara states (regarding Vishnu Purana, 3.1.45): "The Power of the Supreme Being has entered within the universe. The root viś means 'enter into'." Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu Sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: "The root vis means to enter. The entire world of things and beings is pervaded by Him and the Upanishad emphatically insists in its mantra 'whatever that is there is the world of change.' Hence, it means that He is not limited by space, time or substance. Chinmayananda states that, that which pervades everything is Vishnu."

 

SACRET TEXTS - SHRUTI & SMRITI

Shruti is considered to be solely of divine origin. It is preserved as a whole, instead of verse by verse. It includes the four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda) the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads with commentaries on them.

 

Smṛti refers to all the knowledge derived and inculcated after Shruti had been received. Smrti is not 'divine' in origin, but was 'remembered' by later Rishis (sages by insight, who were the scribes) by transcendental means and passed down through their followers. It includes the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana which are Sattva Puranas. These both declare Vishnu as Para Brahman Supreme Lord who creates unlimited universes and enters each one of them as Lord of Universe.

 

SHRUTI

 

VAISHNAVA CANON

The Vaishnava canon presents Vishnu as the supreme being, rather than another name for the Sun God, who also bore the name Suryanarayana and is considered only as a form of Vishnu.

 

VEDAS

In the Yajur Veda, Taittiriya Aranyaka (10-13-1), Narayana suktam, Lord Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being. The first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words "paramam padam", which literally mean "highest post" and may be understood as the "supreme abode for all souls". This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam, or Vaikuntha. Rig Veda 1:22:20a also mentions the same "paramam padam". This special status is not given to any deity in the Vedas apart from Lord Vishnu/Narayana.[citation needed] Narayana is one of the thousand names of Vishnu as mentioned in the Vishnu Sahasranama. It describes Vishnu as the All-Pervading essence of all beings, the master of - and beyond - the past, present and future, one who supports, sustains and governs the Universe and originates and develops all elements within. This illustrates the omnipresent characteristic of Vishnu. Vishnu governs the aspect of preservation and sustenance of the universe, so he is called "Preserver of the universe".

 

Vishnu is the Supreme God who takes manifest forms or avatars across various ages or periods to save humanity from evil beings, demons or Asuras. According to the extant Hindu texts and traditions, Lord Vishnu is considered to be resident in the direction of the "Makara Rashi" (the "Shravana Nakshatra"), which is about coincident with the Capricorn constellation. In some of the extant Puranas, and Vaishnava traditions, Vishnu's eye is considered to be situated at the infinitely distant Southern Celestial Pole.

 

Following the defeat of Indra and his displacement as the Lord of Heaven or Swarga, Indra asks Lord Vishnu for help and thus Lord Vishnu takes his incarnations or avatars to Earth to save mankind, thus showing his position as Supreme God to all of creation.

 

In the Puranas, Indra frequently appears proud and haughty. These bad qualities are temporarily removed when Brahma and/or Shiva give boons to Asuras or Rakshasas such as Hiranyaksha, Hiranyakashipu and Ravana, who are then able to defeat Indra in wars between Devas and Asuras. The received boons often made Asuras virtually indestructible.

 

Indra has no option but to seek help from Vishnu. Indra prays before Vishnu for protection and the Supreme Lord obliges him by taking avatars and generating himself on Earth in various forms, first as a water-dweller (Matsya, fish), then as an amphibious creature (Kurma avatar or Tortoise), then as a half-man-half-animal (Varaha the pig-faced, human-bodied Lord, and Narasimha the Lord with lion's face and claws and a human body). Later, Vishnu appears as human beings (Vamana the short-heighted person), Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and finally as Kalki for performing his task of protecting his devotees from demons and anti-religious entities.

 

Vishnu's supremacy is attested by his victories over those very powerful entities. It is further attested by the accepted iconography and sculptures of Vishnu in reclining position as producing Brahma emerging from his navel. Brahma the creator is thus created in turn by Vishnu out of his own person. Instead Vishnu takes various avatars to slay or defeat those demons. But it is to be noted that Vishnu also provided boons to Akupresura, a bear faced demon who was destroyed by Lord Shiva.

 

Vishnu's actions lowered Indra's ranking among Hindu deities and led to the ascendancy of Vishnu.

 

Few temples are dedicated to the Sun or Suryanarayana, nor indeed Indra, nor does Indra figure largely in the Hindu religion.

 

Indra is almost completely absent from the deities considered as the chief or most important deity.

 

RIGVEDA

In the Rigveda, Vishnu is mentioned 93 times. He is frequently invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing Vritra and with whom he drinks Soma. His distinguishing characteristic in the Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 are dedicated to Vishnu. In 7.99, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra.

 

The Rig Veda describes Vishnu as younger brother to Indra as Vamana. In Vaishnava canon the 'Vishnu' who is younger brother to Indra is identified as Vamana, Avatar of Vishnu, hence referred to as Vishnu by Vaishnavites. Vishnu is the Supreme God who lives in the highest celestial region, contrasted against those who live in the atmospheric or terrestrial regions. Vishnu is content with mere prayer, unlike almost all of the other gods who receive sacrificial offerings such as Havis, which is given using clarified butter, or Soma. Later foreign translators have view that Vedas place Indra in a superior position to Vishnu's Avatar of Vamana but in fact Vamana helps Indra by restoring his Kingdom.

 

An alternate translation is provided by Wilson according to Sayana:

 

When Thy (younger brother) Viṣṇu (Vamana) by (his) strength stepped his three paces, then verily thy beloved horses bore thee. (Rigveda 8:12:27)

 

Wilson mentions Griffith's possible translation as a footnote. However the following verse from Rigveda renders the above translation by Wilson more probable.

 

Him whose three places that are filled with sweetness, imperishable, joy as it may list them, Who verily alone upholds the threefold, the earth, the heaven, and all living creatures. (Rig veda 1:154:4)

 

Wilson offers an alternate translation for Rigveda 10:113:2:

 

Viṣṇu offering the portion of Soma, glorifies by his own vigor that greatness of his. Indra, the lord of heaven, with the associated gods having slain Vritra, became deserving of honour. (Rigveda 10:113:2)

 

This verse sees Vishnu as one who is glorified by his own strength, while Indra became deserving of honor after having slain Vritra only in association with other gods.

 

However Vishnu's praise for other gods does not imply worship. Wilson translates:

 

Viṣṇu, the mighty giver of dwellings praises thee, and Mitra and Varuna; the company of Maruts imitates thee in exhilaration. (Rigveda 8:15:9) (page 280)

 

The following verses show categorically Vishnu as distinguished from other gods in Rigveda.

 

He who presents (offering) to Viṣṇu, the ancient, the creator, the recent, the self-born; he who celebrates the great birth of that mighty one; he verily possessed of abundance, attains (the station) that is to be sought (by all). (Rigveda 1:156:2) (page 98)

 

No being that is or that has been born, divine Viṣṇu, has attained the utmost limit of thy magnitude, by which thou hast upheld the vast and beautiful heaven, and sustained the eastern horizon of Earth.(Rigveda 7:99:2) (page 196)

 

The divine Viṣṇu, the best of the doers of good deeds, who came to the pious instituter of rite (Indra), to assist (at its celebration), knowing (the desires of the worshiper), and present at the three connected period (of worship), shows favor to the Arya, and admits the author of the ceremony to a share of the sacrifice. (Rigveda 1:156:5) (page 99)

 

Jan Gonda, the late Indologist, states that Vishnu, although remaining in the background of Indra's exploits, contributes by his presence, or is key to Indra's success. Vishnu is more than a mere companion, equal in rank or power to Indra, or sometime the one who made Indra's success possible.

 

Descriptions of Vishnu as younger to Indra are found in only the hymns to Indra, but in a kathenotheism religion like that of the Rigveda, each god, for a time, is supreme in the mind of the devotee.

 

In the Rig Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is the Sun God, who also bears the name 'Suryanarayana'. By contrast, the 'Vishnu' referred to in 'Vishnu Purana', 'Vishnu Sahasranamam' and 'Purusha Sooktham' is Lord Narayana, the Consort of Lakshmi. Vaishnavites make a further distinction by extolling the qualities of Vishnu by highlighting his differences from other deities such as Shiva,[citation needed] Brahma or Surya.

 

THREE STEPS

Hymn 7.100 refers to the celebrated 'three steps' of Vishnu (as Trivikrama) by which he strode over the universe and in three places planted his step. The 'Vishnu Suktam' (RV 1.154) says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those encompassing the earth and air) are visible to men and the third is in the heights of heaven (sky). This last place is described as Vishnu's supreme abode in RV 1.22.20:

 

The princes evermore behold / that loftiest place where Vishnu is / Laid as it were an eye in heaven.(trans. Griffith)

 

Griffith's "princes" are the sūri, either "inciters" or lords of a sacrifice, or priests charged with pressing the Soma. The verse is quoted as expressing Vishnu's supremacy by Vaishnavites.

 

Though such solar aspects have been associated with Vishnu by tradition as well as modern-scholarship, he was not just the representation of the sun, as he moves both vertically and horizontally.

 

In hymns 1.22.17, 1.154.3, 1.154.4 he strides across the earth with three steps, in 6.49.13, 7.100.3 strides across the earth three times and in 1.154.1, 1.155.5,7.29.7 he strides vertically, with the final step in the heavens. The same Veda also says he strode wide and created space in the cosmos for Indra to fight Vritra. By his stride he made dwelling for men possible, the three forming a symbolic representation of the dwelling's all-encompassing nature. This nature and benevolence to men were Vishnu's enduring attributes. As the triple-strider he is known as Trivikrama and as Urukrama, for the strides were wide.

 

BRAHMANAS

The Brahmanas are commentaries on the Vedas and form part of the Shruti literature. They are concerned with the detail of the proper performance of rituals. In the Rigveda, Shakala Shakha: Aitareya Brahmana Verse 1 declares: agnir vai devānām ava mo viṣṇuḥ paramus, tadantareṇa sarvā anyā devatā - Agni is the lowest or youngest god and Vishnu is the greatest and the highest God.

 

The Brahmanas assert the supremacy of Lord Vishnu, addressing him as "Gajapati", the one whom all sacrifices are meant to please. Lord Vishnu accepts all sacrifices to the demigods and allots the respective fruits to the performer In one incident, a demonic person performs a sacrifice by abducting the Rishis (sages), who meditate by constantly chanting God's name. The sacrifice is meant to destroy Indra. But the rishis, who worship Indra as a demigod, alter one pronunciation of the Veda Mantra, reversing the purpose of the sacrifice. When the fruit of the sacrifice is given and the demon is on the verge of dying, he calls to Vishnu, whom he addresses as Supreme Godhead and "the father of all living entities including himself".

 

Aitareya Brahmana 1:1:1 mentions Vishnu as the Supreme God. But in the Vaishnava canon, in different ages, with Vishnu in different avatars, his relationship with the asuras or demons, was always adversarial. The asuras always caused harm, while the sages and devas or celestial beings, did penance and called to Vishnu for protection. Vishnu always obliged by taking an avatar to vanquish the asuras. In the Vaishnava canon, Vishnu never gave or granted any boons to the asuras, distinguishing him from the gods Shiva and Brahma, who did. He is the only God called upon to save good beings by defeating or killing the asuras.

 

Sayana writes that in Aitareya Brahmana 1:1:1 the declaration agnir vai devānām ava mo viṣṇuḥ paramus,tadantareṇa sarvā anyā devatā does not indicate any hierarchy among gods. Even in Rigveda Samhita, avama and parama are not applied to denote rank and dignity, but only to mark place and locality.

 

In Rigveda 1:108:9,: yadindrāghnī avamasyāṃ pṛthivyāṃ madhyamasyāṃ paramasyāmuta sthaḥ | i.e., in the lowest place, the middle (place), and the highest (place). Agni, the fire, has, among the gods, the lowest place; for he resides with man on the earth; while the other gods are either in the air, or in the sky. Vishnu occupies the highest place. The words avama and parama are understood as 'First' and 'Last' respectively. To support this claim, Sayana adduces the mantra (1,4. As'val. Sr. S. 4, 2), agnir mukham prathamo devathanam samathanam uttamo vishnur asit, i.e., Agni was the first of the deities assembled, (and) Vishnu the last.

 

In the Kausitaki Brahmana (7.1) Agni is called Aaradhya (instead of avama), and Visnu parardha(instead of parama),i.e., belonging to the lower and higher halves (or forming the lower and higher halves). The Vishnu Purana gives tremendous importance to the worship of Vishnu and mentions that sacrifices are to begin only with both the lighting of fire or 'Agni', pouring of sacrificial offerings to Vishnu in 'Agni' so that those offerings reach and are accepted by Vishnu. Worship of Vishnu through Yajnas (or Homams) and other rituals, will not achieve the desired result if Agni's role is neglected.

 

Muller says "Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small, the young and the old (Rig veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers, and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute."

 

However this notion is not completely correct as per the following verses, which shows Rigveda describe one or more gods as subject to other god(s).

 

Him whose high law not Varuna nor Indra, not Mitra, Aryaman, nor Rudra breaketh, Nor evil-hearted fiends, here for my welfare him I invoke, God Savitar, with worship. (Rigveda 2.038.09)

 

I invite to this place, with reverential salutations, for my good, that divine Savita, whose functions neither Indra, nor Varun.a, nor Mitra nor Aryaman nor Rudra nor the enemies (of the gods), impede. (Rigveda 2.038.09)

 

SMRITI

 

VISHNU SMRITI

The Vishnu Smṛti, is one of the later books of the Dharmashastra tradition of Hinduism and the only one that focuses on the bhakti tradition and the required daily puja to Vishnu, rather than the means of knowing dharma. It is also known for its handling of the controversial subject of the practice of sati (self-immolation of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre). The text was composed by an individual or group. The author(s) created a collection of the commonly known legal maxims that were attributed to Vishnu into one book, as Indian oral culture began to be recorded more formally.

 

BHAGAVATA PURANA

Vishnu is the only Bhagavan as declared in the Bhagavata 1:2:11 in the verse: vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvam yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti bhagavan iti sabdyate, translated as "Learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as Brahman, Paramātma and Bhagavan."

 

VISHNU PURANA

In the Vishnu Purana (6:5:79) the personality named Parashara Rishi defines six bhagas:

 

aiśvaryasya samagrasya vīryasya yaśasaḥ śriyaḥ

jñāna-vairāgyayoś caiva ṣannāḥ bhaga itīṇganā

 

Jiva Gosvami explains the verse in Gopala Champu (Pūrva 15:73) and Bhagavata Sandarbha 46:10:

 

jñāna-śakti-balaiśvarya-vīrya-tejām.sy aśeṣataḥ

bhagavac-chabda-vācyāni vinā heyair guṇādibhiḥ

 

"The substantives of the word bhagavat (bhagavat-śabda-vācyāni) are unlimited (aśeṣataḥ) knowledge (jñāna), energies (śakti), strength (bala), opulence (aiśvarya), heroism (vīrya), splendor (tejas), without (vinā) objectionable (heyair) qualities (guṇādibhiḥ)."

 

SANGAM LITERATURE

Tamil Sangam literature (300BCE to 500CE) mentions mAyOn, or the dark one, as the supreme deity who creates, sustains and destroys the universe. Paripadal 3 describes the glory of Thirumal in the most superlative terms.

 

Paripadal by kaduvan iLaveyinanAr:

 

"thIyinuL theRal nI poovinuL naaRRa nI kallinuL maNiyu nI sollinuL vaaymai aRaththinuL anbu nI maRaththinuL mainthu nI vEthaththu maRai nI boothaththu madhalu nI vencudar oLiyu nI thingaLuL aLiyu nI anaiththu nI anaiththinut poruLu nI"

 

The last line states that Lord Vishnu is the supreme deity who is the inner controller (Antaryamin) of the entire universe. This is one of the Lord's glories, which is first mentioned in Vedas and later propounded by Alwars in Prabhandams and Sri Vaishnavaite Acharyas in various commentaries

 

The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple and Vishnu, Lakshmi is mentioned in Tamil works of literature of the Sangam era, including the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):

 

āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ

 

pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum

 

On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with bellowing waves, is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest.

 

THEOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

The actual number of Vishnu's auspicious qualities is countless, although his six most-important "divine glories" are:

 

Jnana (Omniscience); defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;

Aishvarya (Sovereignty), derived from the word Ishvara which means unchallenged rule over all;

Shakti (Power or Energy), the capacity to make the impossible possible;

Bala (Strength), the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue;

Virya (Vigour), the power to retain immateriality as the Supreme Spirit or Being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations;

Tejas (Splendor), which expresses self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by spiritual effulgence.

 

Other important qualities attributed to Vishnu are Gambhirya (inestimatable grandeur), Audarya (generosity), and Karunya (compassion). Natya Shastra lists Vishnu as the presiding deity of the Sṛngara rasa.

 

The Rigveda says: Vishnu can travel in three strides. The first stride is the Earth. The second stride is the visible sky. The third stride cannot be seen by men and is the heaven where the gods and the righteous dead live. (This feature of three strides also appears in the story of his avatar Vamana/Trivikrama.) The Sanskrit for "to stride" is the root kram; its reduplicated perfect is chakram (guņa grade) or chakra (zero-grade), and in the Rigveda he is called by epithets such as vi-chakra-māņas = "he who has made 3 strides". The Sanskrit word chakra also means "wheel". That may have suggested the idea of Vishnu carrying a chakra.

 

FIVE FORMS

In Shree Vaishnavism, another school dating from around the 10th century AD, Vishnu assumes five forms:

 

In the Para Form, Para is the highest form of Vishnu found only in Sri Vaikunta also called Moksha, along with his consort Lakshmi, (and Bhumi Devi and Nila devi, avatars of Lakshmi) and surrounded by liberated souls like Ananta, Garuda, and a host of Muktas (liberated souls).

In the Vyuha form, Vishnu assumes four forms, which exercise different cosmic functions and controls activities of living beings.

In the Vibhava form, Vishnu assumes various manifestations, called Vibhavas, more popularly known as Avataras from time to time, to protect the virtuous, punish evil-doers and re-establish righteousness.

In the Antaryami; "Dwelling within" or "Suksma Vasudeva" form, Vishnu exists within the souls of all living beings and in every substance.

In the Arcavatara or Image manifestation, Vishnu is visible and therefore easily approachable by devotees since Para, Vyuha, Vibhava and Antaryami forms can only be imagined or meditated upon because they are beyond our reach. Such images can be

Revealed by Vishnu, for example, a self-manifested (Swayambhu) icon (murti), e.g. The Mahavishnu Temple at Tirunelli, The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, The Tirumala Venkateshwara Temple, etc.; or

Installed by Devas or celestial beings such as such as Guruvayur Temple installed by Vayu; or

Installed by humans, and consecrated according to Vaishnava Agama shastras or scriptures such as Lord Jagannatha of Jagannath Temple (Puri) at Puri.

 

RELATIONS WITH OTHER DEITIES

 

SHIVA

The three gods of the Trimurti clan are inseparable and in harmony in view of their common vision and universal good. They are perfectly ideal in all respects.

 

Both Asuras and Devas played supportive roles in this story by keeping company with Vishnu in his incarnated forms. Hanuman is a vanara who is completely dedicated to Rama. He gives Vishnu company and obeys his command, while playing an important part in Rama's life. He is regarded in Vaishnava canon because it is through blessings that Hanuman is born. Thus, Hanuman, Vishnu's constant companion, with his idol appearing temples of Rama, Krishna and Narasimha, i.e. all of Vishnu's avatars, is considered by Vaishnavas.

 

Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara). This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata.

 

LAKSHMI

Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth (also known as Maya). The Samvit (the primary intelligence/dark matter) of the universe is Vishnu, while the other five attributes emerge from this samvit and hence Maya or dark energy of the universe is Lakshmee is his ahamata, activity, or Vishnu's Power. This power of God, Maya or Shakti, is personified and has multiple names: Shree, Lakshmi, Maya, Vishnumaya or Mahamaya. She is said to manifest as Kriyashakti, (Creative Activity) and Bhutishakti (Creation). This world requires Vishnu's creativity. He therefore needs Lakshmi to always be with Him. Her various avatars as Lord Vishnu's consorts are Varahavatar (Bhoodevi) or Bhoomi, Ramavatar Seeta, Krishnavatar Rukmini)

 

SARASWATI & GANGA

According to Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Lord Vishnu had three wives Lakshmi, Saraswati and Ganga. Due to their constant quarrelsome nature among them. Once Ganga tried to be close with Vishnu, this rebuked Saraswati but Lakshmi tried to pacify them but faced a curse rather. As per the curse, Lakshmi to appear as Tulasi. Sarawati cursed Ganga to run as a river in the world and Saraswati was cursed to run as a river in the netherworld. After this, Lord Vishnu transformed and became Brahma and Shiva to pacify Saraswati and Ganga.

 

GARUDA

Vishnu's mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders.

 

ICONOGRAPHY

According to various Puranas, Vishnu is the ultimate omnipresent reality and is shapeless and omnipresent. However, a strict iconography governs his representation, whether in pictures, icons, or idols:

 

He has four arms and is male: The four arms indicate his all-powerful and all-pervasive nature. His physical existence is represented by the two arms in the front, while the two arms at the back represent his presence in the spiritual world. The Upanishad Gopal Uttartapani describes the four arms.

The Shreevatsa mark is on his chest, symbolizing his consort Lakshmi.

He wears the auspicious "Kaustubha" jewel around his neck and a garland of vaijayanti flowers (Vanamala). Lakshmi dwells in this jewel, on Vishnu's chest.

A crown adorns his head: The crown symbolizes his supreme authority. This crown sometimes includes a peacock feather, borrowing from his Krishna-avatar.

He wears two earrings: The earrings represent inherent opposites in creation — knowledge and ignorance; happiness and unhappiness; pleasure and pain.

He rests on Ananta, the immortal and infinite snake.

 

Vishnu is always to be depicted holding four attributes:

 

A conch shell or Shankha, named Panchajanya, is held by the upper left hand. It represents Vishnu's power to create and maintain the universe. Panchajanya represents the five elements or Panchabhoota – water, fire, air, earth and sky or space. It also represents the five airs or Pranas that are within the body and mind. The conch symbolizes that Vishnu is the primeval Divine sound of creation and continuity. It also represented as Om. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna avatara states that of sound vibrations, 'He is Om'.

The Chakra, a sharp, spinning, discus-like weapon, named "Sudarshana", is held by the upper right hand. It symbolizes the purified spiritualized mind. The name Sudarshana is derived from two words – Su, which means good, superior, and Darshana, which means vision or sight; together. The Chakra represents destruction of ego in the awakening and realization of the soul's original nature and god, burning away spiritual ignorance and illusion, and developing higher spiritual vision and insight to realize god.

A mace or Gada, named "Kaumodaki", is held by the lower right hand. It symbolizes that Vishnu's divine power is the source of all spiritual, mental and physical strength. It also signifies Vishnu's power to destroy materialistic or demonic tendencies (Anarthas) that prevent people from reaching god. Vishnu's mace is the power of the Divine within us to spiritually purify and uplift us from our materialistic bonds.

A lotus flower or Padma is held by the lower left hand. It represents spiritual liberation, Divine perfection, purity and the unfolding of Spiritual consciousness within the individual. The lotus opening its petals in the light of the Sun is indicative of the expansion and awakening of our long dormant, original spiritual consciousness in the light of god. The lotus symbolizes that god is the power and source from which the universe and the individual soul emerges. It also represents Divine Truth or Satya, the originator of the rules of conduct or Dharma, and Divine Vedic knowledge or Jnana. The lotus also symbolizes that Vishnu is the embodiment of spiritual perfection and purity and that He is the wellspring of these qualities and that the individual soul must seek to awaken these intrinsic Divine qualities from Vishnu by surrendering to and linking with Him.

 

To this may be added, conventionally, the vanamaala flower garland, Vishnu's bow (Shaarnga/Kodand) and his sword Nandaka. A verse of the Vishnu Sahasranama stotram states;vanamālī gadhī shārngī shanki chakri cha nandaki / shrīmān nārāyaņo vişņo vāsudevo abhirakşatu//; translation: Protect us Oh Lord Narayana who wears the forest garland,who has the mace, conch, sword and the wheel. And who is called Vishnu and the Vasudeva.

 

In general, Vishnu's body is depicted in one of the following three ways:

 

Standing on a lotus flower, often with Lakshmi, his consort, beside him on a similar pedestal.

Reclining on the coiled-up thousand-hooded Shesha Naga, with Lakshmi seated at his feet; the assemblage rests on the "Kshira Sagar" (ocean of milk). In this representation, Brahma is depicted as sitting on a lotus that grows out of Vishnu's navel.

Riding on the back of his eagle mount, known as Garuda. Another name for Garuda is "Veda atma"; Soul of the Vedas. The flapping of his wings symbolizes the power of the Divine Truth of Vedic wisdom. Also the eagle represents the soul. Garuda carrying Vishnu symbolizes the soul or jiva atma carrying the Super soul or Param atma within it.

 

AVATARS

Ten avatars (dashavatara) of Vishnu are the most prominent: Apart from the most prominent incarnations there are believed to more.

 

The most commonly believed incarnations of Vishnu are:

 

Matsya, the fish that kills Damanaka to save the vedas and also saves Manu from a great flood that submerges the entire Earth.

Kurma, the turtle that helps the Devas and Asuras churn the ocean for the nectar of immortality.

Varaha, the boar that rescues the Earth and kills Hiranyaksha.

Narasimha, the half-lion half human, who defeats the demon Hiranyakashipu.

Vamana, the dwarf that grows into a giant to save the world from King Bali.

Parashurama, "Rama of the battle axe", a sage who appeared in the Treta Yuga. He killed Kartavirya Arjuna's army and clan and then killed all the kshatriyas 21 times.

Rama, the prince and king of Ayodhya who killed the Demon King Raavan.

Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu, who takes part in the Mahabharata epic. Krishna is worshipped as the Supreme Avatar of Vishnu (Supreme Personality of Godhead) in Gaudiya-Vaishnava philosophy.

Buddha, the ninth avatar of Vishnu.

Kalki, the tenth Avatar of Vishnu and said to be the harbinger of the end Kali Yuga. This avatar of Vishnu is yet to come.

 

Some versions of the above list include Hayagreeva among the Dashavataras while some include Buddha as ninth avatar of Vishnu. Another 22 avatars are given in Chapter 3, Canto 1 of the Bhagavata Purana, although it states that "the incarnations of the Lord are innumerable, like rivulets flowing from inexhaustible sources of water".

 

BEYOND HINDUISM

 

SIKHISM

Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhism mentions Vishnu, one verse goes:

 

The true Vaishnaav, the devotee of Vishnu, is the one with whom God is thoroughly pleased. He dwells apart from Maya. Performing good deeds, he does not seek rewards. Spotlessly pure is the religion of such a Vaishnaav; he has no desire for the fruits of his labors. He is absorbed in devotional worship and the singing of Kirtan, the songs of the Lords Glory. Within his mind and body, he meditates in remembrance on the Lord of the Universe. He is kind to all creatures. He holds fast to the Naam, and inspires others to chant it. O Nanak, such a Vaishnaav obtains the supreme status.

 

BUDDHISM

While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism. Lord Vishnu is also known as upulvan, or uthpala varna, meaning "Blue Lotus coloured". Some postulates that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Uthpala Varna was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic Hinduism. According to Chronicles "Mahawamsa", "Chulawamsa" and folklore in Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra(Indra) and Sakra delegated this task of custodianship to god Vishnu. In contrary to vedic Hinduism, in assimilation of Hindu god Vishnu into Sinhalese Buddhism, Vishnu becomes a mortal being and a Bodhisattva aspiring Buddhahood. Additionally, Vishnu is considered as the god of home and hearth representing mercy, goodness, order and stability. Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka. In addition to specific Vishnu "Kovils" or "devalayas", all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms (Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu. John Holt in his groundbreaking study examines the assimilation, transformation, and subordination of the Hindu deity Vishnu within the contexts of Sri Lankan history and Sinhala Buddhist religious culture. He then explores the role and rationale of medieval Sinhala kings in assimilating Visnu into Sinhala Buddhism. According to Holt the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability, over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in early 1700s, Holt states that vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital Polonnaruwa. In Buddhist mythology, when Vishnu failed to traverse the universe in three steps, he was given the title "Ardha Vishnu (Half-Vishnu)" and when Vishnu banished demons from the Vaishali (Vishala)in India, he became "Mulu Vishnu or Whole Vishnu". The extreme significance of god Vishnu in Sinhala society is reflected in recitals of the traditional "Offerings to dwarfs and crossing the door frame (bahirwayanta dola pideem saha uluwahu peneema)" that starts with Sri Vishnu invocation.In the recitals,mentioning of the aspiring Buddhahood of Vishnu which is of prime importance to Buddhists and wishes for him to live five thousand and more years highlight the central role of Vishnu in the psyche of Sri Lankan Buddhists.

 

OTHERS

James Freeman Clarke, Richard Leviton, James Cowles Prichard, and others have noted the similarities between Vishnu and Ancient Egyptian God Horus.

 

During an excavation in an abandoned village of Russia in the Volga region, archaeologist Alexander Kozhevin excavated an ancient idol of Vishnu. The idol dates from between the 7th and 10th centuries. In the interview Kozhevin, stated that, "We may consider it incredible, but we have ground to assert that Middle-Volga region was the original land of Ancient Rus. This is a hypothesis, but a hypothesis, which requires thorough research"

 

THOUSAND NAMES OF VISHNU

Vishnu's many names and followers are collected in the Vishnu Sahasranama, (Vishnu's thousand names) from within the larger work Mahabharata. The character Bheeshma recites the names before Krishna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, praising him (Vishnu) as the supreme god. These Sahasranama are regarded as the essence of all Vedas by followers of Vaishnavism, who believe sincere chanting of Vishnu Sahasranama results in spiritual well-being and a greater awareness of God.

 

The names are generally derived from the Anantakalyanagunas (meaning: infinite auspicious attributes).

 

According to the Siddhartha-samhita there are twenty-four forms of Lord Vishnu. The twenty-four forms are

 

Vasudeva

Sankarshana

Pradyumna

Anirudha

Keshava

Narayana

Madhava

Govinda

Vishnu

Madhusudana

Trivikrama

Vamana

Sridhara

Hrishikesha

Padmanabha

Damodara

Purushottama

Achyuta

Narasimha

Janardana

Hari

Krishna

Adhokshaja

 

Upulvan, Uthpala Varna - In Sri Lanka, Vishnu is also referred to as Upulvan ( Blue Lotus Coloured)

 

WIKIPEDIA

Maintained and distributed by DYKSTRA De-Vries, KR4U inc. Of Bellflower CA. At 99 Cents only stores in 1320 W 11 St Tracy CA.

Joe and Lisa are now in a relationship. However, Lisa insists on maintaining strict military protocols between the two of them, though sometimes there is a breakdown in these. Joe Bradley is a sergeant and Lisa, a Leytenant and famous Russian sniper as well as Hero of Soviet Union.

 

End of sequence.

 

Lisa kept her promise to Joe and was on duty waiting for him in Berlin at the end of the war.

 

On the 25th April 1945 Lisa meets up with her unit on the river Elbe and must say goodbye to Joe and the 247 Military Field Hospital she has grown to love since shortly after D-day when she rescued Joe from the clutches of some German soldiers in a stolen Sherman tank.

 

The Germans surrendered on the 8th of May 1945 and shortly after Joe headed for Berlin as part of an interpreter unit for senior officers. However, back at the Elbe Lisa and Joe have to go their separate ways as the American forces are not permitted to enter Berlin. The story goes:

 

...Suddenly he hears Lisa call out.

 

"Sgt comrade Bradley - stop!"

 

Joe stops for a moment still facing forward. He then slowly turns his head, fighting back tears, he turns to face Lisa. Lisa approaches Joe and stands to attention in front of him.

 

"Sgt comrade Bradley - in United States Army is it not customary to salute superior officer?"

 

Surprised, Joe throws a short sharp salute. Lisa replies in kind.

 

"Sgt comrade Bradley, it is also customary for soldiers in armed forces of Union of Soviet Socialist Republic to kiss as a formal military compliment when in presence of Hero of Soviet Union - Leytenant Lisaveta Britchkina from Vologda!"

 

Joe cocks his head to one side to convey his confusion.

 

"Sgt Brad..." Lisa stutters, her lower lip quivers, "Sgt Joe Bradley you may kiss Leytenant!"

 

Lisa lowers her voice to a whisper

 

​"Please Joe, please kiss me!"

 

A smile comes over Joe's face as months of heart ache melt away.

He warmly embraces Lisa

 

"Joe... I love you"

 

Joe repeats her name over and over, the first time he had ever called her by her first name. At the same time Lisa closes her eyes.

 

"Lisa....Lisa....Lisa"

 

​"Lisa, I have always loved you".

 

"Joe, we will see each other again soon"

 

Joe gently caresses her cheek with the back of his hand.

 

"Lisa, do Soviet soldiers really kiss each other?"

 

Lisa briefly breaks their embrace while stilling holding onto Joe.

 

A stern look falls on her face. "You don't believe I am Hero of Soviet Union?"

 

"No, no , no I was just , ah I didn't mean..."

 

Lisa breaks into laughter

 

"It's ok Joe I'm teasing you!"

 

"Would you like to accompany me to airfield Sgt comrade Bradley or should I get those Amercian pilots there to help me?"...

 

And later in Berlin...

 

A few weeks later Joe and the team drove through the city stopping to chat with soviet soldiers whose Russian Joe was able to interpret. He pretended to be interested in their conversation but he was scanning the area around the open spaces. He saw the Brandenburg gate columns peppered with bullets and soviet trucks criss crossing the intersection. And then he noticed a female soldier standing on a platform waving two flags in almost semaphore fashion. Joe excused himself from the group and approached the girl. He also noticed a soviet film crew performing an interview with the female soldier.

​

Joe stopped and stood still. A few trucks drove between them. The film crew departed. The girl flicked her flags for a Soviet Staff car, saluting it as it passed by, putting Joe directly in Lisa's line of sight. Her Mosin Nagant rifle was slung across her back just as Joe had remembered her wearing it after their last meeting. Suddenly the square was quiet. They stood looking at each other for a moment in silence.

 

"Comrade Sgt Bradley" Lisa called out loudly.

 

"Is it customary in United States Army to salute superior officer?"

 

Joe replied.

 

"Is it customary in the the armed forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic to kiss a superior officer as a formal compliment?"

 

"Then Sgt Bradley...you had better obey custom!"

 

​

An ascending aerial shot sets the final scene as Joe crosses over to embrace the love of his life. As they intertwine the sounds of heavy soviet transport truck horns and the cheers of Soviet soldiers can be heard as they pass followed by Duffy and the gang circling them in their jeep. Joe, with his arms around Lisa lifts her up and swings her around. With the fading audio Lisa can be heard to say "Joe, you are so terrible at goodbyes". Fade out - Without any traffic control, the intersection becomes clogged and confusion envelopes.

 

Joe and the unit are stationed on Iwo Jima after the war in Europe is over but Japan surrenders and the unit is sent as part of the occupation forces. After a difficult struggle with red tape, on leave, Joe tracks Lisa down in Berlin and with permission returns to St Lo where they are married.

 

One of Lisa's missions was to secure the Romanov diamond, stolen by German soldiers en route to Stalingrad. However, the diamond was also sought by the USA and they thought they had it in their grasp...

 

Back in Moscow...in a secret warehouse location.

 

"And now comrades we reveal the glorious efforts and ingenuity of the union of the soviet socialist republic, top secret plans taken from under the noses of the allies that will determine our solid future in rocket supremacy and world leaders in space technology"

 

A soldier holding a claw hammer is given the nod to wrench the cover off a large wooden crate. The cover is thrown onto the floor and some wax paper pulled back.

There is a sudden gasp and the sound of flash bulbs going off ten to a dozen.

 

Lying in the crate, bright and shining is the largest diamond in the world - the Romanov Diamond!

 

In Washington...The president begins to speak...

 

"It is with great rejoicing and appreciation that we owe a significant debt of gratitude to our intelligence network. Without their contribution we would not have in front of us today this genuine prize of humanity that speaks for all Americans as we unveil the world's largest diamond. It is a tribute to the power of our democracy and symbol of our strength and courage as we assist to transform the world from the league of Nations to the new United Nations. On that note may I now declare..The second world war in Europe is over. These proceedings are closed!"

 

The whole room is filled with roars and cheers as a corporal splinters the side of the crate open. The furrore dies down in a hurry as the room is filled with the flutter of paper files, sketches and rocket drawings. Complete silence descends on the room. A small component rolls out squeaking and stops at the feet of the president. The president stoops and picks up the object, and a sketch of a V2 rocket, He scratches his head.

 

"Well what the hell is this?".

 

The corporal comes over.

"Mr President, I think it's an automatic pilot, you see sir it says so on the" the corporal is cut off by the president who turns to his inferiors

 

"I know what it says corporal, heads are going to roll for this blunder, what the hell are we going to do with a box of stupid skyrockets?"

 

"And did we get that German chef who works at the rocket centre kitchen famous for world cuisine or did we stuff that up as well?"

 

The corporal replies

 

"Oh no Mr President, he's right here"

 

"Good, what's your name son, I presume you speak English?"

 

The young man replies

 

"Ja Mr President, my name is Von Braun, Wernher Von Braun at your service".

​

​

  

Lisa and Duffy Washington are the only surviving members of the 247 MFH. Duffy is currently in the UK held up by the Covid 19 virus and can't make the 75th anniversary services in Normandy.

 

Lisa is now in a rest home in Allentown, Pennsylvania and is surrounded by her loving family.

 

In Lisa's dreams she once again is the young sniper girl in the strong loving arms of the medic sergeant that sang songs to her and won her heart.

 

One evening, sometime soon, she will hear a couple of jeeps pull up in her driveway, Joe, Tommy, Buck, Katy, Ashi, George, Takitah, Jane, Michelle, Katyusha and Sarah will jump out and invite her to join them in their next big adventure.

 

20 November 2022

 

Over the last few years Duffy in ill health, has been staying with his granddaughter and her family in a 'granny flat' at the back of the family home in a quiet little street in Allentown. In the early hours of one morning, Ranger, the family dog, in slumber spread across and taking up most of the bed space, is awaken by an approaching car in the driveway. Ranger licks Duffy's face who slowly gains consciousness. After peering outside Duffy puts on his slippers and shuffles his way to the entrance of his flat. He goes outside, at first thinking that the Jeep and servicemen he sees in front of him are part of some military enactment group. But then he realises. Ranger looks at Buck and Joe in the front seat, the girls in the back and gently whimpers. Joe tells Ranger he cant come with them but Duffy convinces the team that since the dog is 20 yrs old and near the end of his days he should come with them. Ranger in excitement jumps onto Asahi's lap in the back of the Jeep. Duffy reaches out at Joes outstretched hand and notices his own hands are young and smooth. He squeezes in the back next to a young women, Victoria, the love of his life, together again forever.

 

The following morning, Chelsea comes in with a cup of coffee for her grandfather and sees Ranger and her grandfather lying motionless in their bed. They had passed away.

 

In time, even death itself might be abolished; who knows but it may be given to us after this life to meet again in the old quarters, to play chess and draughts, to get up soon to answer the morning roll call, to fall in at the tap of the drum for drill and dress parade, and again to hastily don our war gear while the monotonous patter of the long roll summons to battle.

Who knows but again the old flags, ragged and torn, snapping in the wind, may face each other and flutter, pursuing and pursued, while the cries of victory fill a summer day? And after the battle, then the slain and wounded will arise, and all will meet together under the two flags, all sound and well, and there will be talking and laughter and cheers, and all will say, Did it not seem real? Was it not as in the old days?

 

THE END

In these uncertain times, it is unclear if we should go out to do normal things, let alone if we find the churches open when we get there.

 

St Michael is under the care of the CCT, and so the electronic lock makes sure the door is open each day at ten.

 

The church stands on a hill, overlooking west Kent, must be wonderful on a fine summer day. On a grey autumn one, less so.

 

We park at the lych gate, walk up the very un-Kentish stone steps, up the churchyard to the south Priest's door, which opened easily.

 

Inside, it was a light and airy space, with Victorian oak pews, and walls filled with memorials. Much of interestm unlike some of those I saw on Heritage weekend where there was barely 30 shots taken, here I took a good hundred, and most are keepers.

 

We leave the church and are greeted with the majestic view as the churchyard slopes away to the lychgate, and the road beyond vanishing down the down.

 

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The medieval church was superseded by a new church in the village in 1842, but remains in good repair being maintained today by The Churches Conservation Trust. In many ways it is the typical Kentish church, showing work of many different periods and many monuments to remind us of former inhabitants. As in some other local churches the north aisle is the primary one, even though the church is entered from the south. The restoration by diocesan architect Joseph Clarke in 1857 was rather heavy-handed and provided a veritable sea of oak pews. In contrast the south chapel, which belonged to the Twysden family of Roydon Hall, has a nice unrestored atmosphere, as does the south porch which shows an abundance of medieval (and later) graffiti. At the lychgate is the famous stable used by nineteenth-century congregations.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=East+Peckham+1

 

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EAST PECKHAM.

SOUTHWARD from Mereworth lies the parish of East or Great Peckham, written in Domesday, PECHEHAM, and in the Textus Roffensis, PECHAM. It has the appellation of East Peckham from its situation eastward from West or Little Peckham, and of Great, from its large extent in comparison of that parish.

 

They both had their name of Peckham probably from their situation; peac signifying in Saxon the peke or summit of an hill, and ham, a village or dwellingplace.

 

THIS PARISH is situated within the district of the Weald, in a country, which though for the most part too deep and miry to be pleasant, is yet exceedingly fertile as to its products, in corn, hops, and cattle, and is full of fine oak timber, with the trees of which it abounds. It joins northward up to Mereworth, and lord Despencer's park, whence it descends southward for upwards of two miles to Brandt, formerly called Stidal's bridge, and Sladis bridge, and the river Medway, which flows along the southern boundaries of it, besides which it is watered by a small stream, which rises near Yokes, in West Peckham, and runs through this parish into the river. The high road from Maidstone through Mereworth, towards Hadlow and Tunbridge, runs along the western boundary of this parish, as that from Watringbury through Nettlested to Brandt bridge, and across the Medway towards Cranbrook, does along the eastern boundary of it. In that part of this parish next to Mereworth, is the village and church of East Peckham, and on the rise of a hill the antient and respectable looking mansion of Roydon-hall, the grounds of which are bounded on each side by coppice woods; hence the ground descends to a more wet and deeper country, being a stiff clayey soil, mostly grazing land, exceedingly rich and fertile, on which are bred and fatted some of the largest beasts of any in these parts. On the roads leading to Brandt-bridge in this part of East Peckham are several hamlets, as those of Chitley-cross, North-hatch, Halestreet, and others.

 

This parish was antiently bound with others in this neighbourhood to contribute to the repair of the 5th pier of Rochester bridge.

 

IN THE YEAR 96y, queen Ediva, mother of king Edmund and king Eadred, gave to Christ-church, in Canterbury, among other lands, this estate of Peckham, free from all secular service, excepting the trinoda necessitas of repelling invasions, and the repair of castles and highways.

 

Peekham remained part of the possessions of Christchurch at the consecration of archbishop Lanfranc, in the 4th year of the Conqueror's reign.

 

The revenues of this church were at that time enjoyed as one common stock by the archbishop and his convent; but archbishop Lanfranc, after the example of foreign churches, separated them into two parts; one of which he allotted for the maintenance of himself and his successors in the see of Canterbury, and the other for his monks, for their subsistence, cloathing, and other necessary uses.

 

In this partition, Peckham fell to the share of the monks, and it is accordingly thus entered in Domesday, under the title of Terra Monachorum Archiepi, i e. the land of the monks of the archbishop.

 

The archbishop himself holds Pecheham. In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was taxed at six sulings, and now for six sulings, and one yoke. The arable land is ten carucates. In demesne there are two, and sixteen villeins, with fourteen borderers, having four carucates and an half. There is a church, and ten servants, and one mill, and six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of ten hogs.

 

Of the land of this manor, one of the archbishop's tenants holds half a suling, and was taxed with these six sulings in the time of king Edward the Confessor, although it could not belong to the manor, except in the scotting, because it was free land.

 

Richard de Tonebridge holds of the same manor two sulings and one yoke, and has there twenty-seven villeins, having seven carucates, and wood for the pannage of ten hogs, the whole value being four pounds. In the time of king Edward the Confessor, the manor was worth twelve pounds, when the archbishop received it eight pounds, and now what he has is worth eight pounds.

 

In the 10th year of king Edward II. the prior of Canterbury obtained free warren for his manor of Peckham among others. About which time it was valued at ten pounds. It continued part of the possessions of the priory of Christ-church till its dissolution in the 31st year of king Henry VIII. when it was surrendered up to the king, who that year granted this manor to Sir Thomas Wyatt, and his heirs male, to hold in capite by knight's service, and he in the 35th year of that reign conveyed it to George Multon; but there being no fine levied, or recovery had of it, the crown, on the attainder of his son, Sir Thomas Wyatt, for high treason in the 1st year of queen Mary, seized on it as part of his possessions.

 

The court-lodge and demesnes of this manor were afterwards granted away by the crown; but THE MANOR ITSELF continued part of the royal revenue at the death of king Charles I. in 1648; after which the powers, then in being, seized on the royal estates, and passed an ordinance to vest them in trustees, to be surveyed and sold, to supply the necessities of the state; in pursuance of which, there was soon afterwards a survey taken of this manor, by which it appeared, that the quit-rents due from the freeholders in free socage tenure, the like due from the freeholders in the township of Marden, the rent of hens and eggs from the tenants in those townships, and the profits of courts, were worth altogether seventeen pounds and upwards. That there was a court leet and court baron held for the manor, and a heriot was due from the freeholders of the best living thing of such tenant, or in lieu thereof 3s. 4d. in money.

 

Soon after which this manor was sold to colonel Robert Gibbon, with whom it continued till the restoration of king Charles II. when it again became part of the revenues of the crown.

 

The grant of it has been many years in the family of the duke of Leeds, the present grantee of it being his grace Francis, duke of Leeds.

 

THE COURT-LODGE WITH THE DEMESNES of the manor of East Peckham was granted the nextyear after the attainder of Sir Thomas Wyatt, by letters patent, anno 1st and 2d of king Philip and queen Mary, to Sir John Baker, to hold in capite by knight's service, (fn. 1) who passed his interest in them, in the 2d year of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to Anthony Weldon, esq. but the crown afterwards disputing his title to them, the queen, in her 10th year, granted them to William Dodington, and the next year, the attorney-general exhibited an information against the heirs of Weldon in the court of exchequer, on account of these premises, and judgment was had against him. After which a writ of error was brought, and divers other law proceedings had, by which, however, at last, Ralph, son of Anthony Weldon above-mentioned, established his title to them; and his son, Sir Anthony Weldon, (fn. 2) in the latter end of the reign of king James I. passed them away by sale to George Whetenhall, esq. after whose death they came by descent into the possession of Thomas Whetenhall, esq. of Hextalls-court, in this parish, whose descendant, Henry Whetenhall, esq. alienated this estate to Sir William Twysden, bart. of Roydon-hall, whose descendant, Sir William Jarvis Twisden, bart. is the present possessor of it.

 

ROYDON-HALL, antiently called Fortune, is a seat here, which was of no great account till about the reign of king Henry VIII. when Thomas Roydon, of son of Thomas, second son of Thomas Roydon, of Roydon-hall, in Suffolk, where this family had been seated many generations, and bore for their arms, Chequy, argent and gules, a cross azure, came into this county, and seated himself at Fortune, and erected this seat; on which he affixed his own name, and in the 31st year of that reign procured his lands in this county to be disgavelled, by the act passed that year for this purpose. He married Margaret, daughter of William Wheten hall, esq. of this parish, by whom he had three sons and five daughters.

 

On the death of the sons without issue, his five daughters became his coheirs; the second of whom, Elizabeth, had this estate as part of her share, and intitled her husband, William Twysden, esq. of Chelmington, in this county, to the fee of it. She survived him, and afterwards remarried Cuthbert Vaughan, esq. and lastly Sir Thomas Golding. She left by her first husband, one son, Roger Twysden, and a daughter, Margaret, married to Richard Dering, esq. of Pluckley.

 

The family of Twysden, written in antient deeds, Twisenden, and in Latin, De Denna Fracta, were originally of the parish of Sandhurst, in this county, the place where they resided being called the Den, or borough of Twisden, at this time, and bore for their arms, Girony of four, argent and gules, a saltier between four cross-croslets, all counterchanged.

 

Adam de Twysden resided at Twysden borough, in the 21st year of king Edward I. and dying without issue, as well as his brother Gregory, John de Twysden, the youngest brother, became his heir. His descendant, Roger Twysden, in the reign of king Henry V. married Elizabeth, daughter and heir of Thomas Chelmington, esq. of Chelmington, in Great Chart, who bore for his arms, Argent, three chevrons azure, nine cross-crosiets sable. At which seat his descendants, who lie buried in Great Chart church, afterwards resided, down to William Twysden, esq. who was of Chelmington, and married Elizabeth, second daughter and coheir of Thomas Roydon, and in her right became possessed of Roydon-hall, as above-mentioned, to which he removed soon afterwards. He procured his lands in this county to be disgavelled by the act of the 2d and 3d of king Edward VI. in which he is called William Twisenden, and was sheriff of this county in the 41st year of queen Elizabeth. He died in 1603, and was buried in this church, as was Anne his wife, eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Wyatt, of Allington, who died in 1592. by whom he had issue twelve children, of whom only six survived him.

 

William Twysden, esq. the eldest son, greatly improved Roydon-hall, and having been before knighted, was afterwards made a baronet on June 29, 1611. He was a man, who addicted his time mostly to study, being versed in different parts of learning, especially in the Hebrew and Latin languages, and collected many choice manuscripts and books, which he left to his eldest son. He died in 1628, and was buried in this church leaving by Anne his wife, eldest daughter of Sir Moile Finch, knight and baronet, several sons and daughters; of whom Sir Roger, the eldest son, was his successor in title and estates here; Sir Thomas, the second son, was on the restoration of king Charles II. made one of the justices of the king's bench, and being afterwards made a baronet, seated himself at Bradbourn, in East-Malling, the seat of his descendant, the present Sir John Papillon Twisden, bart. under which place an account has already been given of that branch; and Charles, the third son, was created LL. D. and had given him, by his father's will, the seat of Chelmington before mentioned.

 

¶Sir Roger Twysden, knight and baronet, the eldest son, resided at Roydon-hall, round which he obtained licence from king Charles I. to inclose a park, and likewise a grant of a charter of free warren for the ground inclosed. He died in 1672, and was buried in this church, having suffered greatly for his loyalty during the great rebellion, being forced at last to compound for his estate for a large sum of money. He was a great encourager of learning, and a generous patron of learned men, being himself a master of our antient Saxon and English history and laws, and left behind him the united character of the scholar and the gentleman. In whose descendants resident at Roydon hall, who severally lie buried in East Peckham church, this seat with his other estates in this parish, came down to Sir William Twysden, bart. who resided at Roydon-hall, and married Jane, daughter of Francis Twisden, esq. youngest son of Sir Thomas Twisden, bart. of Bradbourn, by whom he had three sons; William, his heir and successor; Thomas, a colonel in the army; and Philip, late bishop of Raphoe; and three daughters. He died in 1751, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sir William Twysden, bart. who at first followed a military life, but afterwards retired to Roydon hall, and married Jane, the daughter and heir of Mr. Jarvis. He died at Roydon-hall in 1767, leaving his lady surviving, and by her three sons, WilliamJarvis, Heneage, and Thomas, and one daughter, Frances, who in 1783 married Archibald, late earl of Eglington. Sir William Jarvis Twysden, bart. the eldest son, married in 1786, the daughter of governor Wynch, and resides at Roydon-hall, of which he is the present owner.

  

This parish is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Rochester, and being a pecu liar of the archbishop of Canterbury, is as such within the deanry of Shoreham.

 

The church, which is dedicated to St. Michael, is a fair large building, with a square tower at the west end. It stands near the summit of the hill almost adjoining to the southern pales of Mereworth-park.

 

In the 15th year of king Edward I. the church of Peckham was valued at thirty-five marcs, and the vicarage of it at twelve marcs. (fn. 5)

 

In the reign of king Edward III. the taxation of East Peckham was one carucate of arable land, with a meadow of the endowment of the church, worth six pounds per annum, and two dove-houses of the rectory, of the endowment of the church, and worth two marcs, and the profit of the garden, of the like endowment, worth 2s. 5d. (fn. 6)

 

The church, with the advowson of the vicarage, was always appendant to the manor of East Peckham, and as such part of the possessions of the priory of Christchurch, in Canterbury, till the dissolution of that monastery in the 31st year of king Henry VIII. when it was surrendered into the king's hands, who granted the manor to Sir Thomas Wyatt, and he settled this church, with the advowson of the vicarage, by his dotation charter, in his 33d year, on his new-erected dean and chapter of Canterbury, part of whose possessions they remain at this time.

 

This church is valued in the king's books at 231. and the yearly tenths at 21. 6s.

 

The vicarage of it is valued at 141. and the yearly tenths at 11. 0s. 8d.

 

It appears by the terrier of the lands belonging to the impropriate rectory, and vicarage of East Peckham at the visitation of archbishop Laud in 1634, that the glebe lands belonging to this parsonage in the park of Mildmay, earl of Westmoreland, which he had from the church of Canterbury, were twenty acres, called Keamehatches; that there were to the parsonage house two gardens, one orchard, two yards, three barns, one stable, one pidgeon-house, one granary, eight acres of meadow, called Well-mead, alias Parsonage mead, one mead called the Vicarage-mead, containing three acres, and two other parcels of land, containing seven acres, called Quarrey-mead, and the Quarrey, and that the tenant of the parsonage was Stephen Arnold; that there was to the vicarge one house, with a little orchard, by estimation almost an acre, and a little garden plot, but that which was called the Vicarage-mead, the impropriator of the parsonage kept and used.

 

¶On the abolishing of deans and chapters, after the death of king Charles I. their lands were by the powers then in being, ordered to be sold, to supply the necessities of the state; previous to which a survey was made, in 1649, of this parsonage, by which it appeared, that there were here a house, outhouses, &c. one orchard, one garden, and one great yard, worth fix pounds per annum, and the tithes and other profits eightyeight pounds per annum; that the parsonage, with the house, glebe lands, tithes, profits, &c. was let by the dean and chapter of Canterbury, in 1638, to John Tucker, gent. of Egerton, excepting one parcel of land, called the Hatches, demised to Sir Francis Fane, late earl of Westmoreland, and the advowson of the vicarage, at the yearly rent of 23l. 6s. 8d. but were worth upon improvement, over and above the said sum, 85l. 14s. 3d. per annum; that the lessee was bound to repair the premises, and the chancel of the church, and likewife to pay twenty shillings for entertainment money. (fn. 7) And by another valuation, taken the next year, the vicarage was valued at twenty-four pounds yearly income. (fn. 8)

 

In the 19th year of the reign of king Charles II. anno 1667, in consequence of the king's letters of injunction, the dean and chapter of Canterbury augmented this vicarage with the yearly sum of forty pounds, the yearly income of it is now upwards of 270l. per annum.

 

The present lessee of the parsonage is Sir William Jarvis Twysden, bart.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol5/pp91-106

“I will maintain and defend the sovereignty of the United States paramount to any and all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty,” the USMA Class of 2026 pledged at the end of their Reception Day. June 27, 2022. (U.S. Army Photo by Kyle Osterhoudt/USMA)

The Arizona Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau.

 

Sikorsky UH-60A Black Hawk 89-26166

After breakfast at the hotel, my wife and I were waiting for the elevator. I noticed this maintain distance sticker, in front of a wet floor sign, next to the elevator. So apparently in Pigeon Forge, you must social distance from wet floor signs beside the elevator!