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Building on his first book, On Intelligence, Jeff bravely presents a framework for how the brain works to produce intelligence from neurons organized into ~150 thousand cortical columns.
His decades of self-funded dedication to studying how the brain works affords a possibly unique and unifying perspective. In both books, though, he loses his way when speculating on the artificial brains of the future (with logical inconsistencies and overgeneralizations anchored on our biology). I think the first 112 pages are the best part of his new book. I’ll focus on that and save a brief critique of his AI constraints for the end.
In his first book, Hawkins presents a memory-prediction framework for intelligence. The neurons in the neocortex provide a vast amount of memory that learns a model of the world. These models continuously make low-level predictions in parallel across all of our senses. We only notice them when a prediction is incorrect. Higher in the hierarchy, we make predictions at higher levels of abstraction (the crux of intelligence, creativity and all that we consider being human), but the structures are fundamentally the same.
If that is not mind-bending enough, in his new book, Jeff extends the memory framework to the construct of “reference frames”. Everything we perceive is a constructed reality, a cortical consensus from competing internal models resident in many cortical columns, the amalgam of 1000 brains. Those models are updated by data streaming from the senses. But our reality resides in the models.
Here are the best parts of his new book, in my opinion. I revisit them to learn. Travelling without moving, as we’ll see…
“The cells in your head are reading these words. Think how remarkable that is.”
“If you ignore folds and creases, then the neocortex looks like one large sheet of cells, with no obvious divisions. The neocortex looks similar everywhere. Every part of the neocortex generates movement. In every region we have examined, scientists have found cells that project to some part of the old brain related to movement. The complex circuitry seen everywhere in the neocortex performs a sensory-motor task. There are no pure motor regions and no pure sensory regions.”
The cortex is relatively new development by evolutionary time scales. After a long period of simple reflexes and reptilian instincts, only mammals evolved a neocortex. “At some point millions of years ago, a new piece of the brain appears that we now call the neocortex. It starts small, but then grows larger, not by creating anything new, but by copying a basic circuit over and over. As the neocortex grows, it gets larger in area but not in thickness.” Given the recency, it’s “probably not enough time for multiple new complex capabilities to be discovered by evolution, but it’s plenty of time for evolution to make more copies of the same thing.”
• Vernon Mountcastle’s proposition from 1978: “All the things we associate with intelligence, which on the surface appear to be different, are, in reality, manifestations of the same underlying cortical algorithm. Darwin proposed that the diversity of life is due to one basic algorithm (evolution). Mountcastle proposed that the diversity of intelligence is due to one basic algorithm.”
Beyond the evolutionary time-scale argument, the brains’ vast flexibility to accept different, even prosthetic, sensory input changes and its ability to learn many different things point to a universal framework for learning.
• Cortical Columns are “the largest and most important piece of the puzzle.” They are roughly one square millimeter in size with 100K neurons. A mouse has one column per whisker. “Every cortical column is making predictions. We are not aware of the vast majority of these predictions unless the input to the brain does not match.”
• Learning through movement: “The brain learns its model of the world by observing how its inputs change over time. There isn’t another way to learn. Every time we take a step, move a limb, move our eyes, tilt our head, or utter a sound, the input from our sensors change. For example, our eyes make rapid movements, called saccades, about three times a second. With each saccade, our eyes fixate on a new point in the world and the information from the eyes to the brain changes completely.” We don’t perceive any of this because we are living in the model, which is predicting the next input to come, across all the senses. “Vision is an interactive process, dependent on movement. Only by moving can we learn a model of the object.”
“To avoid hallucinating, the brain needs to keep its predictions separate from reality. We are not aware of most of the predictions made by the brain unless an error occurs.”
“Thoughts and experiences are always the result of a set of neurons that are active at the same time (about 2% of the total). Individual neurons can participate in many different thoughts or experiences. Everything we know is stored in the connections between neurons. Every day, many of the synapses on an individual neuron will disappear and new ones will replace them. Thus, much of learning occurs by forming new connections between neurons that were not previously connected.”
Sequence memory (like predicting the next note in a melody or a common sequence of behaviors): “Sequence memory is also used for language. Recognizing a spoken work is like recognizing a short melody.”
• Locus of Predictions: “Oddly, less than 10% of the pyramidal cell’s synapses are in the proximal area. The other 90% are too far away to trigger a spike. For many years, no one knew what 90% of the synapses in the neocortex did. The big insight I had was that dendrite spikes are predictions. A dendrite spike occurs when a set of synapses close to each other on a distal dendrite get input at the same time, and it means the neuron had recognized a pattern of activity in some other neurons. When the pattern of activity is detected, it raises the voltage at the cell body, putting the cell into what we call a predictive state. The cell is primed to spike… and the cell spikes a little bit sooner than if it would have if the neuron was not in a predictive state.” And this inhibits other neurons from ever firing, the ones who were behind in that race. “When an input arrives that is unexpected, then neurons fire at once. If the input is predicted, then only the predictive-state neurons become active. This is a common observation about the neocortex: unexpected inputs cause a lot more activity than expected ones.” Predictions prime the pump, sub-threshold. “Predictions are not sent along a cell’s axon to other neurons, which explains why we are unaware of most of them.”
“Most predictions occur inside neurons. With thousands of distal synapses, each neuron can recognize hundreds of patterns that predict when the neuron should become active. Prediction is built into the fabric of the neocortex. As few as 20,000 neurons can learn thousands of complete sequences. The sequence memory continued to work even if 30% of the neurons died or the input was noisy.”
• Reference Frames: “The secret of the cortical column is reference frames. A reference frame is like an invisible, 3D-grid surrounding and attached to something” (like a map)
“Predicting the next input in a sequence and predicting the next input when we move are similar problems. Our sequence-memory circuit could make both types of predictions if the neurons were given an additional input that represented how the sensor was moving.”
“Most of the circuitry is there to create reference frames and track locations. The brain builds models of the world by associating sensory input with locations in reference frames. You need a reference frame to specify the relative position and structure of objects. Roboticists rely on them to plan the movements of a robot’s arm or body. Reference frames were the missing ingredient, the key to unraveling the mystery of the neocortex and to understanding intelligence. We showed that a single cortical column could learn the 3D shape of objects by sensing and moving and sensing and moving. Each cortical column must know the location of its input relative to the object being sensed. To do that, a cortical column requires a reference frame that is fixed to the object. The brain must have neurons whose activity represents the location of every object that we perceive.”
“Mammals have a powerful internal navigation system. There are neurons in the old part of our brain that are known to learn maps of the places we have visited” — the hippocampus and enthorhinal cortex, organs roughly the size of a finger.
“Place cells tell a rat where it is based on sensory inputs, but planning movement requires grid cells. Grid cells form a grid pattern. The two types of cells work together to create a complete model of the rat’s environment. Every time a rat enters an environment, the grid cells create a new reference frame to specify locations and plan movements.” In the new brain, these same cells and structures create models of objects instead of environments.
“Every cortical column learns models of complete objects. The columns do this using the same basic method that the old brain uses to learn models of environments. It is as if nature stripped down the hippocampus to a minimal form, made tens of thousands of copies, and arranged them side by side in cortical columns. That became the neocortex. Each patch of your skin and each patch of your retina has its own reference frame in the neocortex. Your five fingertips touching a cup are like five rats exploring a box.”
“Not all cortical columns are modeling objects. Language and other high-level cognitive abilities are, at some fundamental level, the same as seeing, touching, and hearing. The reference frames that are most useful for certain concepts have more than three dimensions.”
• Thinking is a form of movement: “The brain arranges all knowledge using reference frames, and thinking is a form of moving. Thinking occurs when we activate successive locations in reference frames.”
“A cortical column is just a mechanism that tries to discover and model the structure of whatever is causing its inputs to change” whether the structure of environments, physical objects or conceptual objects. “Reference frames are not an optional component of intelligence; they are the structure in which all information is stored in the brain. Every fact you know is paired with a location in a reference frame. Organizing knowledge this way makes the facts actionable” to “determine what actions are needed to achieve a goal.”
“To recall stored knowledge, we have to activate the appropriate locations in the appropriate reference frames. Thinking occurs when the neurons invoke location after location in a reference frame, bringing to mind what was stored in each location. The succession of thoughts we experience when thinking is analogous to the succession of sensations we experience when touching an object with a finger, or the succession of things we see when we walk about a town.”
• What and Where Pathways. “Your brain has two vision systems. If you follow the optic nerve as it travels from the eye to the neocortex, you will see that it leads to two parallel vision systems, called the ‘what’ visual pathway and the ‘where’ visual pathway.” If you disable one, you can identify what something is but not where, or vice versa. “Similar pathways also exist for other senses. There are what and where regions for seeing, touching, and hearing.”
“Cortical grid cells in What columns attach reference frames to objects. Cortical grid cells in Where columns attach reference frames to you body.” The distinction depends on where the inputs come from. “If a cortical column gets input from the body, such as the neurons that detect the joint angles of the limbs, it will automatically create a reference frame anchored to the body.”
“Your body is just another object in the world. However, unlike external objects, your body is always present. A significant portion of the neocortex — the Where regions — is dedicated to modeling your body and the space around your body.”
For abstract concepts like mathematics, there are difference reference frames one could use to learn. “Part of learning is discovering what is a good reference frame, including the number of dimensions.” History can be learned on a timeline, or geographically. “They lead to different ways of thinking about history. They might lead to different conclusions and different predictions. Becoming an expert in a field of study requires discovering a good framework to represent the associated data and facts. Discovering a useful reference frame is most difficult part of learning, even though most of the time we are not consciously aware of it. The correct reference frame to understand how the brain works is reference frames.” It's no surprise that the memory trick called the method of loci, or memory palace, is a good method for remembering a large sequential list of nouns.
From fMRI studies, “the process of storing items in a reference frame and recalling them via ‘movement’ is the same.”
“Nested structure and recursion are key attributes of language. Each cortical column has to be able to learn nested and recursive structure. Cortical columns create reference frames for every object they know. Reference frames are then populated with links to other reference frames. The brain models the world using reference frames that are populated with reference frames; it’s reference frames all the way down.”
• The Thousand Brains Theory of Intelligence: The prevailing view of the neocortex was a hierarchy of feature detectors, from edge detectors up to face detectors. Jeff argues that each and every column is a sensory-motor system. “When the eyes saccade from one fixation point to another, some of the neurons in the V1 and V2 visual regions do something remarkable. They seem to know what they will be seeing before the eyes have stopped moving. These neurons become active as if they can see new input, but the input hasn’t yet arrived. There are connections between low-level visual regions and low-level touch regions.” Mouse vision occurs in the V1 region; it does not depend on a hierarchy of vision abstractions.
“All cortical columns, even in low-level sensory regions, are capable of learning and recognizing complete objects. A column that senses only a small part of an object (e.g., from a patch of retina) can learn a model of the entire object by integrating its inputs over time.”
“Learning is not a separate process from sensing and acting. We learn continuously. When a neuron learns a new pattern, it forms new synapses on one dendrite branch. The new synapses don’t affect previously learned ones on other branches. Thus, learning doesn’t force the neuron to forget or modify something it learned earlier.” It’s additive.
“What a column learns is limited by its inputs. Columns in V1 can recognize letters and words in the smallest font. V1 and V2 learn models of objects, such as letters and words, but the models differ by scale.”
“Knowledge of something is distributed in thousands of columns, but these are a small subset of all the columns. This is why we call it the Thousand Brains Theory: knowledge of any particular item is distributed among thousands of complimentary models. The columns are not redundant, and each is a complete sensory-motor system.”
• The Solution to Sensor Fusion and the Binding Problem: “Columns vote. Your perception is the consensus the columns reach by voting.”
“If you touch something with only one finger, then you have to move it to recognize the object. But if you grasp the object with your entire hand, then you can usually recognize the object at once. In almost all cases, using five fingers will require less movement than using one.” (made me think of reading Braille with multiple fingers). “Voting works across sensory modalities (sight, touch, etc.)”
How? “Cells in some layers send axons long distances within the neocortex” between left and right-hand brain regions or between V1 and A1, the primary vision and auditory regions. “These cells with long-distance connections are voting. Cells that represent what object is being sensed can vote and will project broadly. Often a column will be uncertain, in which case its neurons will send multiple possibilities at the same time. Simultaneously, the column receives projections from other columns representing their guesses. The most common guesses suppress the least common ones until the entire network settles on one answer. The voting mechanism works well even if the long-distance axons connect to a small, randomly chosen subset of other columns”
• The Stability of Perception with ever-changing inputs: “What we perceive is based on the stable voting neurons. We are not consciously aware of the changing activity in each column.” Roughly 98% are silent at any given time and 2% are continuously firing. Consider the experience of an optical illusion duality (like the drawing of a pair of faces or vase); you can only see one at a time, and there is a delay if you force yourself to switch. “Recognizing an object in one sensory modality leads to predictions in other sensory modalities.”
• Attention: We have the perception of multiple objects in our visual field even though we can only attend to one at a time. “Attention plays an essential role in how the brain learns models. The brain can attend to smaller or larger parts of the visual field. Exactly how the brain does this is not well understood, but it involves a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is tightly connected to all areas of the neocortex. It is so intimately connected to the neocortex that I consider it an extension of the neocortex.”
• Consciousness: “Neurons form a continuous memory of both our thoughts and actions. It is this accessibility of the past — the ability to jump back in time and slide forward again to the present — that gives us our sense of presence and awareness. This is the core of what it means to be conscious. If we couldn’t replay our recent thoughts and experiences, then we would be unaware we are alive.”
“The neocortex does not directly control any muscles. The neocortex has to be attached to something that already has sensors and already has behaviors (the primitive brain). It does not create completely new behaviors; it learns how to string together existing ones in new and useful ways.”
“Instead of the neocortex using a hierarchy to assemble features into a recognized object, it uses hierarchy to assemble objects into more complex objects.” The assumption of hierarchy has been stumbling block for neuroscience for many decades.
“Reverse engineering the brain and understanding intelligence is the most important scientific quest humans will ever undertake. At one point I debated whether I should end right there. A framework for understanding the neocortex is certainly ambitious enough for one book.”
Yes, perhaps he should have. AI has been his failing. And, more abstractly, it is one of the grand challenges of biomimicry. While the brain provides the existence proof of an iterative algorithm compounding complexity and generating intelligence, it is a non-trivial exercise to capture the right level of abstraction when instantiating on a silicon substrate. Jeff seems to anchor on our biology to the point of having the wrong reference frame, so to speak, for his intuition. He asserts that certain aspects of our biology must be replicated in all artificial intelligences (e.g., a physically moving vision sensor vs a raster scan saccade) while dismissing countless other aspects of our biology, from ion channels to the goal setting regions of the brain.
We can logically see many idiosyncratic limitations in our biology, constrained by cellular sensors and compute, and need not replicate them in silicon. Similarly, there are limits in our silicon substrates (e.g., number of metal layers and lack of dynamic interconnect) that we need to address if synaptic fanout and long-range voting circuits are fundamental elements.
He is not alone is anchoring on the wrong elements of biomimicry. Neuromorphic spiking compute comes to mind. And this is why I did not even present his AI arguments, as they seemed so riddled with misguided leaps of intuition. You can see how he lost his way in his first book when he asserted that we could generate an AI, and then cut and paste key blocks of functionality like the ability to speak French from one AI to another.
Nevertheless, I am curious about his self-funded work on the brain, which might be a meaningful contribution on the biological side.
I believe this is the logical step after folding the HydRingEa: tesselating the pattern.
luckily I once made some notes on how to get a ring of 1+6 dodecagons from a square. so finding out how to fold the grid was not so hard.
of course I still had to fold the pattern afterwards and that was a massive task. in the end the time spent distributed roughly like this:
- 10h for the grid
- 2:30h for the initial collapse (that was a real fun part, by the way)
- 2:30h for additional precreases (e.g. the lowest petals of the hydrangeas)
- 7:30h to form the hydrangeas and for final shaping
rather near the end I really couldn't muster the motivation to go on. that was when the the bigger part of the upper-most hydrangea petals still had to be folded. now, waiting to finish the model wouldn't have been so bad except for the small fact that it was the evening before the german origami convention and I really really wanted this piece to be on display. nevertheless I couldn't be motivated.
at this point my dear friend claudia came to my rescue and spent an extra hour of finishing the upper petals. without her this model still would not be finished. so a BIG BIG thank you to claudia!! :-DD
this was folded from the biggest square of elephant hide I could find, i.e. 70cm. the finished models still is more than 35cm in diameter which poses a bit of a storage problem : )
finding the right paper for this model wasn't easy at all. obviously elephant hide is not your first choice for hydrangea models. it's definitely too thick which means that I even had to precrease the second hydrangea levels to get a clean result. on the other hand I wanted a big sheet of thin, durable, non-translucent paper. I tried kraft paper and it actually worked rather fine. still it the colour flaked a bit at the grid lines.
additionally I made some mistakes during the gridding by adding unnecessary lines which spoiled the final look a bit. not a biggie I thought but in the end I realized that these extra lines would bug me every time I'd look at the finished model. so I finally decided to trash the half-finished model. that really hurt because it meant almost 20h of wasted efforts :-/
After building Optimus Prime the next logical step was to build Megatron. =)
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Unfortunately due to what he transforms into it's unlikely that LEGO will make a version of the leader of the Decepticons... but hey... we can dream, can't we?
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Once again... getting source material from the cartoons was not easy... in the same episode Megatron's chest "coloured buttons" are represented in 3 or 4 different configurations.
Rapid strata formation in soft sand (field evidence).
Photo of strata formation in soft sand on a beach, created by tidal action of the sea.
Formed in a high tidal event. Stunning evidence which displays multiple strata/layers.
Why this is so important ....
It has long been assumed, ever since the 17th century, that layers/strata observed in sedimentary rocks were built up gradually, layer upon layer, over many years. It certainly seemed logical at the time, from just looking at rocks, that lower layers would always be older than the layers above them, i.e. that lower layers were always laid down first followed, in time, by successive layers on top.
This was assumed to be true and became known as the superposition principle.
It was also assumed that a layer comprising a different material from a previous layer, represented a change in environmental conditions/factors.
These changes in composition of layers or strata were considered to represent different, geological eras on a global scale, spanning millions of years. This formed the basis for the Geologic Column, which is used to date rocks and also fossils. The evolutionary, 'fossil record' was based on the vast ages and assumed geological eras of the Geologic Column.
There was also circular reasoning applied with the assumed age of 'index' fossils (based on evolutionary beliefs & preconceptions) used to date strata in the Geologic Column. Dating strata from the assumed age of (index) fossils (faunal succession) is known as Biostratigraphy.
We now know that, although these assumptions seemed logical, they are not supported by the evidence.
At the time, the mechanics of stratification were not properly known or studied.
An additional factor was that this assumed superposition and uniformitarian model became essential, with the wide acceptance of Darwinism, for the long ages required for progressive microbes-to-human evolution. There was no incentive to question or challenge the superposition, uniformitarian model, because the presumed, fossil 'record' had become dependant on it, and any change in the accepted model would present devastating implications for Darwinism.
This had the unfortunate effect of linking the study of geology so closely to Darwinism, that any study independent of Darwinian considerations was effectively stymied. This link of geology with Darwinian preconceptions is known as biostratigraphy.
Some other field evidence, in various situations, can be observed here: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
and also in the links to stunning, experimental evidence, carried out by sedimentologists, given later.
_______________________________________________
GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES (established by Nicholas Steno in the 17th Century):
What Nicolas Steno believed about strata formation is the basis of the principle of Superposition and the principle of Original Horizontality.
dictionary.sensagent.com/Law_of_superposition/en-en/
“Assuming that all rocks and minerals had once been fluid, Nicolas Steno reasoned that rock strata were formed when particles in a fluid such as water fell to the bottom. This process would leave horizontal layers. Thus Steno's principle of original horizontality states that rock layers form in the horizontal position, and any deviations from this horizontal position are due to the rocks being disturbed later.”)
BEDDING PLANES.
'Bedding plane' describes the surface in between each stratum which are formed during sediment deposition.
science.jrank.org/pages/6533/Strata.html
“Strata form during sediment deposition, that is, the laying down of sediment. Meanwhile, if a change in current speed or sediment grain size occurs or perhaps the sediment supply is cut off, a bedding plane forms. Bedding planes are surfaces that separate one stratum from another. Bedding planes can also form when the upper part of a sediment layer is eroded away before the next episode of deposition. Strata separated by a bedding plane may have different grain sizes, grain compositions, or colours. Sometimes these other traits are better indicators of stratification as bedding planes may be very subtle.”
______________________________________________
Several catastrophic events, flash floods, volcanic eruptions etc. have forced Darwinian, influenced geologists to admit to rapid stratification in some instances. However they claim it is a rare phenomenon, which they have known about for many years, and which does nothing to invalidate the Geologic Column, the fossil record, evolutionary timescale, or any of the old assumptions regarding strata formation, sedimentation and the superposition principle. They fail to face up to the fact that rapid stratification is not an extraordinary phenonemon, but rather the prevailing and normal mechanism of sedimentary deposition whenever and wherever there is moving, sediment-laden water. The experimental evidence demonstrates the mechanism and a mass of field evidence in normal (non-catastrophic) conditions shows it is a normal everyday occurrence.
It is clear from the experimental evidence that the usual process of stratification is - that strata are not formed by horizontal layers being laid on top of each other in succession, as was assumed. But by sediment being sorted in the flowing water and laid down diagonally in the direction of flow. See diagram:
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/dat...
The field evidence (in the image) presented here - of rapid, simultaneous stratification refutes the Superposition Principle and the Principle of Lateral Continuity.
We now know, the Superposition Principle only applies on a rare occasion where sedimentary deposits are laid down in still water.
Superposition is required for the long evolutionary timescale, but the evidence shows it is not the general rule, as was once believed. Most sediment is laid down in moving water, where particle segregation is the general rule, resulting in the simultaneous deposition of strata/layers as shown in the photo.
See many other examples of rapid stratification (with geological features): www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Rapid, simultaneous formation of layers/strata, through particle segregation in moving water, is so easily created it has even been described by sedimentologists (working on flume experiments) as a law ...
"Upon filling the tank with water and pouring in sediments, we immediately saw what was to become the rule: The sediments sorted themselves out in very clear layers. This became so common that by the end of two weeks, we jokingly referred to Andrew's law as "It's difficult not to make layers," and Clark's law as "It's easy to make layers." Later on, I proposed the "law" that liquefaction destroys layers, as much to my surprise as that was." Ian Juby, www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/
The example in the photo is the result of normal, everyday tidal action formed in a single incident. Where the water current or movement is more turbulent, violent, or catastrophic, great depths (many metres) of stratified sediment can be laid down in a short time. Certainly not requiring the many millions of years assumed by evolutionists.
The composition of strata formed in any deposition event. is related to whatever materials are in the sediment mix, not to any particular timescale. Whatever is in the mix will be automatically sorted into strata/layers. It could be sand, or other material added from mud slides, erosion of chalk deposits, coastal erosion, volcanic ash etc. Any organic material (potential fossils), alive or dead, engulfed by, or swept into, a turbulent sediment mix, will also be sorted and buried within the rapidly, forming layers.
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/alb...
See many other examples of rapid stratification with geological features: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Stratified, soft sand deposit. demonstrates the rapid, stratification principle.
Important, field evidence which supports the work of the eminent, sedimentologist Dr Guy Berthault MIAS - Member of the International Association of Sedimentologists.
(Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/)
And also the experimental work of Dr M.E. Clark (Professor Emeritus, U of Illinois @ Urbana), Andrew Rodenbeck and Dr. Henry Voss, (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/)
Other experimental work:
arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/9809432.pdf
www.nature.com/articles/386379a0
Location: Sandown, Isle of Wight. Photographed: 08/12/2017
This field evidence demonstrates that multiple strata in sedimentary deposits do not need millions of years to form and can be formed rapidly. This natural example confirms the principle demonstrated by the sedimentation experiments carried out by Dr Guy Berthault and other sedimentologists. It calls into question the standard, multi-million year dating of sedimentary rocks, and the dating of fossils by depth of burial or position in the strata.
Mulltiple strata/layers are evident in this example.
Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/) and other experiments (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/) and field studies of floods and volcanic action show that, rather than being formed by gradual, slow deposition of sucessive layers superimposed upon previous layers, with the strata or layers representing a particular timescale, particle segregation in moving water or airborne particles can form strata or layers very quickly, frequently, in a single event.
youtu.be/wFST2C32hMQ
youtu.be/SE8NtWvNBKI
And, most importantly, lower strata are not older than upper strata, they are the same age, having been created in the same sedimentary episode.
Such field studies confirm experiments which have shown that there is no longer any reason to conclude that strata/layers in sedimentary rocks relate to different geological eras and/or a multi-million year timescale. www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PVnBaqqQw8&feature=share&.... they also show that the relative position of fossils in rocks is not indicative of an order of evolutionary succession. Obviously, the uniformitarian principle, on which the geologic column is based, can no longer be considered valid. And the multi-million, year dating of sedimentary rocks and fossils needs to be reassessed. Rapid deposition of stratified sediments also explains the enigma of polystrate fossils, i.e. large fossils that intersect several strata. In some cases, tree trunk fossils are found which intersect the strata of sedimentary rock up to forty feet in depth. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsi... They must have been buried in stratified sediment in a short time (certainly not millions, thousands, or even hundreds of years), or they would have rotted away. youtu.be/vnzHU9VsliQ
In fact, the vast majority of fossils are found in good, intact condition, which is testament to their rapid burial. You don't get good fossils from gradual burial, because they would be damaged or destroyed by decay, predation or erosion. The existence of so many fossils in sedimentary rock on a global scale is stunning evidence for the rapid depostion of sedimentary rock as the general rule. It is obvious that all rock containing good intact fossils was formed from sediment laid down in a very short time, not millions, or even thousands of years.
See set of photos of other examples of rapid stratification: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Carbon dating of coal should not be possible if it is millions of years old, yet significant amounts of Carbon 14 have been detected in coal and other fossil material, which indicates that it is less than 50,000 years old. www.ldolphin.org/sewell/c14dating.html
www.grisda.org/origins/51006.htm
Evolutionists confidently cite multi-million year ages for rocks and fossils, but what most people don't realise is that no one actually knows the age of sedimentary rocks or the fossils found within them. So how are evolutionists so sure of the ages they so confidently quote? The astonishing thing is they aren't. Sedimentary rocks cannot be dated by radiometric methods*, and fossils can only be dated to less than 50,000 years with Carbon 14 dating. The method evolutionists use is based entirely on assumptions. Unbelievably, fossils are dated by the assumed age of rocks, and rocks are dated by the assumed age of fossils, that's right ... it is known as circular reasoning.
* Regarding the radiometric dating of igneous rocks, which is claimed to be relevant to the dating of sedimentary rocks, in an occasional instance there is an igneous intrusion associated with a sedimentary deposit -
Prof. Aubouin says in his Précis de Géologie: "Each radioactive element disintegrates in a characteristic and constant manner, which depends neither on the physical state (no variation with pressure or temperature or any other external constraint) nor on the chemical state (identical for an oxide or a phosphate)."
"Rocks form when magma crystallizes. Crystallisation depends on pressure and temperature, from which radioactivity is independent. So, there is no relationship between radioactivity and crystallisation.
Consequently, radioactivity doesn't date the formation of rocks. Moreover, daughter elements contained in rocks result mainly from radioactivity in magma where gravity separates the heavier parent element, from the lighter daughter element. Thus radiometric dating has no chronological signification." Dr. Guy Berthault www.sciencevsevolution.org/Berthault.htm
Radiometric dating based on unverifiable assumptions.
scienceagainstevolution.info/v8i8f.htm
Rapid strata formation and rapid erosion at Mount St Helens.
slideplayer.com/slide/5703217/18/images/28/Rapid+Strata+F...
Published papers
efficalis.com/sedimentology/paper
Visit the fossil museum:
www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157641367196613/
Just how good are peer reviews of scientific papers?
www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6154/60.full
www.examiner.com/article/want-to-publish-science-paper-ju...
The neo-Darwinian idea that the human genome consists entirely of an accumulation of billions of mutations is, quite obviously, completely bonkers. Nevertheless, it is compulsorily taught in schools and universities as 'science'.
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/35505679183
Dr James Tour - 'The Origin of Life' - Abiogenesis decisively refuted.
youtu.be/B1E4QMn2mxk
Darwinism. An interview with Dr Purdom. youtu.be/hG0MIyySsPQ
Rapid stratification refutes evolutionist timescale
evidenceoverignorance.wordpress.com/rapid-stratification-2/ evidenceoverignorance.wordpress.com/rapid-stratification-2/
Further reading:
Geology, the dreadful science.
malagabay.wordpress.com/2013/07/08/geology-the-dreadful-s...
malagabay.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/law-of-superpositio...
Polystrate fossils prove rapid stratification. kgov.com/list-of-the-kinds-of-polystrate-fossils List of polystrate fossils: kgov.com/list-of-the-kinds-of-polystrate-fossils
Rapid stratification refutes evolution timescale:
evidenceoverignorance.wordpress.com/rapid-stratification-2/
Soft tissue, including DNA, found in fossils claimed to be millions of years old. Peer-reviewed journal articles on surviving endogenous biological material including tissue and DNA. docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1eXtKzjWP2B1FMDVrsJ_992ITF...
Published paper:
www.scirp.org/(S(351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje))/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=974471
Bijou Creek flood.
pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-abstract/37...
Greenland ice core dating.
answersingenesis.org/environmental-science/ice-age/do-gre...
The Chinese fossil faking industry.
www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-fake-fossils-perve...
Fake Chinese fossils
www.paleodirect.com/fake-chinese-fossils-fossil-forgery-f...
Ecstatic ...
Logical, I live in Pacific (ocean) ! !
uploaded with Uploader for Flickr for Android
Noumea
New Caledonia
It seems a logical step to move to black and white with this type of capture. I think the black and white lends its self to a grittier look. This was shot on the Venice Boardwalk in Venice California.
Best viewed at the largest size.
© Bob Kramer, Intrinsic Captures, 2011. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WORLDWIDE. NOT TO BE REPRODUCED WITHOUT EXPRESS WRITTEN AUTHORIZATION.
I really like the Mario figure and Mario Kart, so I did the logical thing and made a go-kart for him! I also made a video showing how to build it too.
LEGO TUTORIAL How to Build: Mario Kart
Originally I wanted to make the standard kart from Mario Kart 8 but I didn't like how it was looking. So I scrapped it and made my own kart design instead! I tried to make something new but also keep it familiar and I think it turned out really good.
Instagram: @buildingwithbuck
Youtube: Building with Buck
.
ON APRIL 10 1978, at the age of twenty-four Judy Cameron became the first female Air Canada pilot.
Gosh, it was a risky move. The only other “big player” airline to consider the similar venture of a female pilot, was American Airlines. Quietly, Air Canada had reviewed NASA’s conclusions with regard to “emotional stability” and female astronauts.
NASA had discovered and documented their results. Women were just as calm, just as logical, and just as disciplined as men at the helm. The ancient Canadian airline was sold—they would go with Judy.
But this IS the alternate universe we live in, the one, you know, where Air Canada Flight 621 crashed in Castlemore, ON on this day, July 5, 1970, killing all 109 passengers and crew.
One of those Air Canada stewardesses that perished that awful day was a Denise Goulet and had she NOT died, I believe Denise—not Judy—would have been Air Canada’s first female pilot.
Judy Cameron decidedly took to flying even after a joker-pilot took her up on her first flight, did some spins, stalled his airplane (a Cessna 150) and then pretended he had to do a forced landing…because well, the airplane was now in trouble (component failure or he faked an inability to restart his engine) and to save their lives—they must land immediately!
Judy was scared as hell during the whole flight!
However, when the traumatic flight was over and she was safely on the ground Judy immediately knew…she just had to get her pilot’s license.
Judy took five years to rack up the necessary flying hours and flight experience…on various aircraft (including multi-engine ones) to even be considered as a pilot for any airline. By 1978 she had accumulated the flying experience that Air Canada couldn’t overlook—so she was indeed hired, and history was made. Air Canada had its first female pilot.
In contrast, Air Canada stewardess, Denise Goulet, by age twenty-two already had many parachute jumps under her belt. Her first jump was at age seventeen. And while she had been a stewardess for just shy of three years, she had disclosed to family and friends that she too had committed to getting her pilot’s licence. And fam and friends knew once Denise set her sights on a goal—she would achieve it.
That said, Denise had one huge advantage over Judy.
Denise’s father, Henri-Paul Goulet, was already a commercial pilot! Qualified not just on airplanes, but helos (helicopters) as well. Not many pilots had this dual certification then, or now.
You can bet that once Denise had gotten her private pilot’s licence, her pilot dad would have pulled out all the stops. Commercial pilot's license next…then her multi-engine rating and experience on multiple aircraft. Certainly, on jets. Maybe even helicopters.
Assuming the same career timeline—Denise would have been qualified and been commercial pilot status ready—early, by 1975. Three years before Judy.
By 1978, Denice would have been twenty-nine with far greater flight experience, and the chronologically more mature pilot.
Also, again, it cannot be understated how much attention, flying experience, and extra help Denise would have received through her father. A huge advantage…over and above any advantage Judy actually got.
Think of Walter and Wayne Gretzky, and you’ll start to understand the Henri-Paul and Denise Goulet connection.
Alas, it was not to be.
On July 5th, 1970 that fateful day, a call from Air Canada came into the Goulet residence at around 10 am.
That call would be answered by Denise’s eleven-year-old sister, Louise Goulet who was there at home, alone with her mother, Pauline (nee Roux). And, moments after Louise handed the phone over to her mother…their world came crashing in.
Simultaneously, Denise’s brother Andre who had borrowed Luke Gruninger’s Mustang to pick up Denise at the Los Angeles airport (LAX) waited for her flight to arrive. The trio was going to spend time together visiting California, seeing the younger generation sites. In August, Pauline and Denise were going to tour California together.
As Andre waited at the airport, it was finally announced that Flight 621 had crashed in Canada—with no survivors.
What most folks don’t really get about Air Canada’s Flight 621 crash IS that it was the Canadian parallel or equivalent newsworthy event to the JFK assassination in America!
That’s right.
Ask anyone in the USA what they were doing when they got the news that their much-loved president, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, had been assassinated.
They’ll tell you exactly where they were and what they were doing—and then they'll recall their immediate grief from that very news!
Well, I’ve talked with many, many, folks about the Air Canada DC-8 “stretch” crash in Woodbridge then (Brampton now).
The first recollections these people comment on is usually that it was a Sunday morning. Or, that it was such a beautiful day outside. Next, they'll recall exactly what they were doing at the moment they learned the shocking news of the Toronto area air disaster.
Usually, that news came over the radio, since everyone listened to the radio back then, at least in the background. And then there was a personal sorrow and a realization of their inability to help in any way. But their hearts and prayers were with the victim's families.
So many lives lost and no survivors! And so close to Toronto. And then the inevitable question—how did this crash happen?
That’s what this Air Canada plane crash meant to Canadians at the time. It was a sad and riveting moment for the entire nation.
From Patricia Harding,
“Denise and I trained together as Air Canada Flight Attendants in Montreal. She was a lovely person. I was in Vancouver on a stopover when we heard the news of the crash. We were grief-stricken and so traumatized that we were unable to work our flight back home. We had to stay in Vancouver and were flown home a couple of days later. The flight crew were all known to us and were like family. We were young and had so many dreams for the future. I have never forgotten and I will carry her memory with me always.”
From Nancy Holloway Gunson,
"I was working a C. P. Air flight that fateful day from Vancouver to Montreal. Before take off, we didn't receive any newspapers to hand out to passengers (these were the days when newspapers published 3 times a day and Vancouver was also 3 hours behind Toronto's time) and I remember asking a ground crew member why, and he told that there weren't any. I thought that that was very odd. Little did I realize that the crash was front page news.
It was later in the day as we descended into Toronto, and because my 'fifth position seat' was 'sold', that I sat behind the captain for landing. As we circled, the captain pointed out the smoking rubble on the ground. It was then I found out about the crash. I could just as easily have been on that flight because I was accepted to Air Canada's F.A. training course and a day later, I found out that I was also accepted to CP Air. Because CP Air's training was in Vancouver, I decided that CP Air was for me.
My heart aches for those who perished. Denise Goulet was a beautiful young woman."
Look at the picture above of Denise Goulet.
If ever there was someone full of hope and promise it was Denise.
Her Air Canada stewardess picture is courtesy of Denise’s younger sister, Louise who answered the fateful call from Air Canada on that day.
And sadly, but truly, Denise is standing in front of an Air Canada DC-8 just like the one she perished in.
From the Walsingham poem,
“But true love is a durable fire,
In the mind ever burning.
Never sick, never old, never dead,
From itself never turning.”
Sir Walter Ralegh
Check here, on July 5, 2020, after 7 pm:
www.flickr.com/photos/78215847@N00/albums/721576246894922...
ADD A CONDOLENCE to the FLIGHT 621 FAMILIES, or a LOVED ONE from FLIGHT 621, or a MEMORY of a PERSONAL EVENT related to the crash…at the City of Brampton's permanent Flight 621 site…SEE: www.brampton.ca/EN/City-Hall/Protocol-Office/Brampton-Rem...
REST IN PEACE passengers and crew of Flight 621:
Adams, Celine Fradette
Adams, Pierre J
Beaudin, Gaetan
Belanger, Mrs.
Belanger, Jacques
Belanger, Jean
Belanger, Roland
Belanger, Rosanne
Benson, Helen
Benson, Leonard
Benson, Mary
Benson, Richard
Bertrand, Ginette
Boosamra, Lynn
Boulanger, Guy
Bradshaw, Dollie
Cedilot, Robert J
Chapdeleine, Jeannine
Chapdeleine, Joanne
Chapdeleine, Mario
Charent, Jean Maurice
Clarke, Devona Olivia
Cote, Francine
Daoust, Yolande
Desmarais, Brigitte
Desmarais, G
Dicaire, Alice (Marie)
Dicaire, Gilles
Dicaire, Linda
Dicaire, Luke
Dicaire, Mark
Dion, Suzanne
Dore, Jacqueline
Earle, Lewella
Earle, Linda
Filippone, Francesco
Filippone, Linda
Filippone, Marie
Gee, Bernard
Goulet, Denise M
Grenier, Madeleine
Growse, Diana Cicely
Growse, Jane
Growse, Roger
Hamilton, Karen E
Hamilton, Peter Cameron
Herrmann, Ronald Alvin
Hill, Harry Gordon
Holiday, Claude
Houston, Irene Margaret
Houston, Wesley
Jakobsen, Vagn Aage
Labonte, Gilles
Leclaire, Marie Rose
Leclaire, Oscar
Leduc, Henri W
Lepage, Claudette
Mailhiot, Claire Gagnon
Mailhiot, Gerald Bernard
Maitz, Gustave
Maitz, Karoline
McKettrick, Winnifred
McTague, John
Medizza, Carla
Mohammed, Dolly
Molino, Antonio
Molino, Michael (Michel)
Moore, Frederick T
Partridge, Andrea
Partridge, Carnie (Carnis) Ann
Partridge, Cyril Wayne
Phillips, Kenneth William
Poirier, Rita
Raymond, Gilles
Raymond, Martial
Robert, Aline
Robert, Georges E
Robidoux, Lionel
Rowland, Donald
Silverberg, Marci
Silverberg, Merle
Silverberg, Steven
Simon, Istvan
Simon, Mark
Smith, Dwight Lee
St. Laurent, Blanche
Stepping, Glenn Thomas
Sultan, Celia
Sultan, Jerald. M
Sultan, Robert. L
Szpakowicz, Borys
Szpakowicz, Serge
Tielens, Carmen
Tielens, Frederick
Tournovits, George
Tournovits, Soula (Athanasia)
Weinberg, Carla
Weinberg, Rita
Weinberg, Wendy
Whittingham, Jennifer
Whittingham, John
Whittingham, Reginald
Whybro, Mary Baker
Wieczorek, Hildegund
Witmer, Edgar
Wong, Ngar-Quon
Wong, Suzie
Wong, Wong (Mansing)
Woodward, Dallas J
© 2019 Paul Cardin - Friends of Flight 621
(to be refined further at a later date)
the quiet
organized
modern
sophisticated
logical
serene
and comfortable
street
markets
of DELHI
Photography’s new conscience
IF YOU THOUGHT crime scene investigation, as a science began recently, well, then … you'd be wrong.
Investigators of old did not have the advanced techniques crime solvers use today to catch the culprit(s).
DNA analysis, GPS cellphone history logs, crime scene photos, etc. were NOT EVEN on the horizon, I should have said "radar", but then, that didn't even exist, either.
What Hawkeye and Chingachgook did have, HOWEVER, were keen observational skills and logical application of woodsmen science based on cultural knowns, surrounding habitat, probabilities, etc.
As you can see, from the clip, it worked. This dynamic duo (long before Batman and Robin) were on their way to solving the crime.
What someone made to look like an Indian "red man" crime, was soon properly placed right back where it belonged, on some still, unknown renegade "white men."
The staged diversion failed. Hawkeye and Chingachgook were wise to the bad guys.
Throughout the series, Hawkeye and Chingachgook, were often empowered by the powers-that-be (British colonial overseers, or British military) to use their woodsman science to find out what was really happening at any given location.
Let the READERSHIP remember … 60 YEARS AGO this classic TV Western show (Hawkeye and The Last of the Mohicans) was filmed in its entirety (except for the 1st episode), in Pickering, Ontario. Deckers Hill to be precise (Brock Road and 3rd Concession).
And you may say to yourself, so what, big deal, what the hell does that mean?!
Just this.
HOLLYWOOD NORTH (filming movies or TV shows in Canada to save investor's money, employ gads of Canadians, and get around content rules for later film distribution in the British Commonwealth, etc. never would have materialized.
The real advantages of filming in Canada would have remained a theory. Looked good on paper — but, alas, it didn't work out, therefore, keep future film projects in America. Good day, thanks for the attempt.
But it did work out.
"Hawkeye and The Last of the Mohicans" become a popular show, especially in reruns, was a financial success, and Hollywood has been coming north, ever since.
"Hawkeye and The Last of the Mohicans" was the very first "Hollywood" venture, and Hollywood has been lining up with additional projects to produce primarily in Canada, ever since.
(OUTDOOR SCENES from the show … were filmed in Pickering, Ontario (1956), INDOOR SCENES were filmed in Toronto (1956).
ADDITIONAL INFO!
AS I POST THIS … I acknowledge I am building on the work of other Canadian cultural troubadours, namely Clayton Self, Steve Jensen, and Ian and Kyle Macpherson.
Without their "pioneering" efforts (forgive the pun) I might never have been able to visit Hawkeye and Chingachgook's stomping grounds.
But they did visit. And posted about it.
So I was able to have a gander.
I walked the 'Hawkeye' wilderness with Barb in tow. I saw and leaned against the man-sized boulder which appears in so many episodes. Barb climbed and sat on top! I walked across the great pond which has now been returned to its former days, as only a small creek, the Ganatsekiagon Creek. The creek's usual drainage under Concession 3 and eventually to Lake Ontario, was dammed up for the show and became the pond for all the numerous canoe scenes. It is not canoe-ready anymore, and the creek is easily traversed by deer. A deer run, now runs through it. I stood there, right there, in deep dying grass (it was fall), in almost the middle of the former pond, on a wilderness trail not cut by Hawkeye or Chingachgook … but by large Canadian deer.
So our trip back in time, and the fun doing the hiking and the research, was made possible because of the great research efforts of others, and the 'Hawkeye' fanship of others.
In fact we had to return a second time because I couldn’t find the boulder on the first trip. An e-mail to Clayton Self, who was able to re-orient me, and we handily found it on the second trip. It doesn’t look overly big from a distance, but up close you realize it’s about four feet tall. Visually, it has tell-tale grooves and other signs that match it easily with the one in the show.
So, do check out their "Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans" links below!
Clayton Self: johnhart.tripod.com/pickeringhawkeye.html
Steve Jensen: www.members.tripod.com/~JohnHart/hawkloca.html
Ian and Kyle Macpherson: www.members.tripod.com/~JohnHart/starhawk.htm
… also check out Clayton Self's additional investigative work, his The Forest Rangers TV Show Fan Site. Hey, remember that show?!: forestrangers.bravehost.com
AND ONE MORE from Clayton Self — Canadian Cult Classic Films of the 1960's, 1970's and 1980's (Facebook group) Clayton and members often post links to full CCCF movies. Not sure what to watch Saturday night? Well, have look. And its a part of our Canadian heritage. See: www.facebook.com/groups/502202866547794/
FINALLY, there were indeed, Hawkeye and Chingachgook TOYS, toys, books, and a comic book!
SEE SOME, here: collectablefigures.wordpress.com/2013/04/28/hawkeye-and-t...
Thrilling Wonder Stories / Magazin-Reihe
> Noel Loomis / The Ultimate Planet
> Raymond Z. Gallun / Operation Pumice
> Leigh Brackett / Quest of the Starhope
> Edmond Hamilton / Alien Earth
> Rog Phillips / Quite Logical
> Margaret St. Clair / The Hierophants
> Noel Loomis [Benj. Miller] / On the House
> Ray Bradbury / The Concrete Mixer
> Murray Leinster / The Lost Race
> Fredric Brown / All Good BEMs
> James Blish / The Box
cover: Earle Bergey
Standard Magazines, Inc. / USA 1949
Reprint: Comic-Club NK 2010
ex libris MTP
To complete this short series of toy-inspired trucks, here is the logical companion to the Dinky Toys version. Like Meccano with its Dinky Toys brand, Mettoy took the opportunity to promote its Corgi Toys range with a selection branded models. Several variations of this blue and cream livery appeared on the Bedford CA van. In terms of the models, I can't vouch for the accuracy of either the vehicle type or livery, which has an uncanny resemblance to Wall's Ice Cream. This ERF is entirely fictional (22-Jun-14).
See my Commercial Vehicles album:
www.flickr.com/photos/northernblue109/sets/72157626401398...
All rights reserved. Follow the link below for terms and conditions, additional information about my work; and to request work from me. I cannot undertake to respond to requests, or to queries of a general nature, which are posted as comments under individual images
www.flickr.com/photos/northernblue109/6046035749/in/set-7....
Introduced in 1966, the Bedford KM was a logical extension of the TK range into the 16-ton category for two-axle vehicles and gross combination weights of up to 22 (later 24) tons; but apart from the basic cab structure, it was an entirely new design thus warranting its own model designation. Distinguishing visual features included the double bumpers, twin headlights, ten-stud hubs and larger tyres. The Forestry Commission ran TKs and KMs in a variety of roles. This 1967 three-axle Bedford KM tipper carries a Central London registration. I am grateful to Graham Newell for the original monochrome image (09-Nov-18).
All rights reserved. For the avoidance of doubt, this means that it would be a criminal offence to post this image on Facebook or elsewhere (please post a link instead). Follow the link below for terms and conditions, additional information about my work; and to request work from me:
www.flickr.com/photos/northernblue109/6046035749/in/set-7...