View allAll Photos Tagged Decentralization
A new kind of digital platform is emerging and it is called a Blockchain Exchange. An Exchange that is extremely smart, fully autonomous, hyper-connected, integrated horizontally and vertically while remaining fully decentralized and broad-based. ellipsis.crowdpoint.tech/?afmc=c_C3NTN_ElmJjkooO--_h
A dome above the sea. Santorini, Greece. An other emblematic building (cliché?) of the island, the domes of all the churches of the island.
Das Landhaus wurde von 1879 bis 1880 nach einem Entwurf des Kölner Architekten August Carl Lange im Stil der Kölner Neugotik als Sommerwohnung für den Kölner Landgerichtsrat und Reichstagsabgeordneten Eugen von Kesseler errichtet.Der Bauherr wollte mit der Marienburg an den gleichnamigen Hauptsitz des Deutschen Ritterordens in Westpreußen erinnern.
Bis 1982 war die Marienburg in Familienhand. Dann starb die letzte Nachfahrin des Königlich Preußischen Landgerichtsrats, Elisabeth von Kesseler.
Die Marienburg blieb in Privatbesitz; den Park ringsherum kaufte die Stadt Monheim im Zusammenhang mit der dezentralen Landesgartenschau Euroga 2002 plus, stellte ihn wieder her und machte ihn öffentlich zugänglich.
The country house was built from 1879 to 1880 to a design by the Cologne architect August Carl Lange in the style of the Cologne Neugothic as a summer apartment for the Cologne district court and Reichstag deputies Eugen von Kesseler. The builder wanted to remember the Marienburg to the eponymous headquarters of the Teutonic Knights in West Prussia ,
Until 1982, the Marienburg was in family hands. Then died the last descendant of the Royal Prussian District Judge Elisabeth von Kesseler.
The Marienburg remained privately owned; The park around it bought the city Monheim in connection with the decentralized garden show Euroga 2002 plus, restored it and made it publicly accessible.
Excerpt from Wikipedia:
The University Library Heidelberg (German: Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg) is the central library of the University of Heidelberg. It constitutes together with the 83 decentralized libraries of the faculties and institutes the University Library System, which is headed by the director of the University Library. The University Library holds special collections in literature concerning the Palatinate and Baden, egyptology, archeology, the history of art, and South Asia. It holds about 3.2 million books, 10,732 scientific periodicals, and about 500,000 other media such as microfilms and video tapes. It holds 6,600 manuscripts (most notably the Codex Manesse), 1,800 incunabula, 110,500 autographs, and a collection of old maps, paintings, and photographs. The libraries of the faculties and institutes hold another 3.5 million printed books. In 2005, 34,500 active users of the University Library accessed 1.4 million books a year. The conventional book supply is complemented by numerous electronic services, such as 3,000 commercial scientific journals that can be accessed via e-journal.
The University Library of today traces its roots back to the purchase of a chest of documents by the first Rector Marsilius von Inghen in 1388, which was stored in the Heiliggeistkirche, then the University Cathedral. Additional foundations of the library were laid through donations from bishops, chancellors, and early professors. Louis III willed his large and valuable collection to the university, as did also the Fugger of Augsburg. Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, combined the university's libraries in the 16th century, thus creating the Bibliotheca Palatina. In the 17th century, the greatest part of the Bibliotheca Palatina was donated to the Vatican in Rome as a loot of the Thirty Years War. Several manuscripts from the 10th to 18th century from the libraries of the secularized monasteries Salem and Petershausen later constituted the basis for the reconstruction. From 1901 to 1905, a richly ornamented four-wing red sandstone building was constructed for the library across from the Church of St. Peter. It was designed by Josef Durm, who adapted the Renaissance style of Heidelberg Castle and added numerous elements of Art Nouveau. The building was expanded several times, lately by enlarged basements under the courtyard of the neighboring New University. The frontage is punctuated with many windows for the sake of natural illumination. The University Library's stocks exceeded one million in 1934. Since 1978, the science branch of the University Library serves the institutes of natural sciences and medicine on the New Campus.
Fireworks - NDP Preview 2
The Singapore National Day Parade is a national ceremony in Singapore that, as its name implies, includes a parade on Singapore's National Day on August 9, in commemoration of Singapore's independence that is usually held at the Float @Marina Bay and various decentralized venues all over Singapore, Padang and the National Stadium.
This year, NDP will bring the mobile column to five heartland sites on 10 August 2019. The mobile column will be travelling to Bishan, Geylang Serai, Jurong East, Punggol, and Woodlands, where there will also be carnivals organised by the People’s Association. The one-day celebrations will culminate with dazzling fireworks displays at each of the five sites.
These are a series of photos, long exposures of the Marina Bay and Central Business District from the Sail @ Marina Bay - The structure of The Sail is 245 m (804 ft) with 70 storeys and is one of Singapore's tallest condominium/apartment. The building was erected on reclaimed land and was designed by Peter Pran and Timothy Johnson with leading design firm NBBJ. The two buildings include a glass facade, sculpted Marina Bay Tower to look like a sail, and configured the complex representative of a huge canyon, reflecting his utilisation of inspirations by the sun, the wind, and the water respectively.
Chittagong Hill Tracts, an area located in the south-east of Bangladesh, with over 13,295 square kilometers and the estimated population of 1.5 million people, is one of the most diverse regions in the country.
This is a home to 12 ethnic groups - the majority Bengali and 11 indigenous communities - Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchangya, Mro, Lushai, Khumi, Chak, Khiyang, Bawm, Pangkhua. Each of them having their own distinctive language, culture, and tradition.
More than two decades of conflicts, the rough hilly terrain and remoteness of villages have impacted the economic development of the region leaving widespread unemployment and over half of the population below poverty line.
The economy of the Hill Tracts heavily depends on agriculture, as nearly two thirds of rural households rely on farming as their primary income.
For many communities, access to basic health care is difficult due to the rough terrain and scattered settlements. Lack of human resources is another big challenge for existing health care.
For similar reasons, access to education is made complicated for many rural children. The difficult terrain makes the journey to school much longer and potentially unsafe. More than half of the children enrolled in primary school drop out in the first years, mainly due to the lack of finance, distance to school, safety, not understanding the subjects and need to stay at home to help parents.
As part of the Peace Accord signed in 1997 a decentralized Local Government was established, with responsibilities delegated to the Regional Council and three Hill District Councils, while the Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs oversees all activities.
Due to the prolonged conflicts in the area, Chittagong Hill Tracts remained outside the mainstream of development assistance for over 25 years.
Following the signing of the Peace Accord, the people of the Hill Tracts entered a new era. The Accord created new opportunities for development assistance. Local people’s enthusiasm have been matched with the support from international donor community to resume development in the region.
translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=is&u=ht...
Aðaldalur is a valley in the South Þingeyjarsýsla . He goes up from the bottom Skjálfandaflói Bay , between Skjálfandafljóts the west and Laxa and Hvammsheiði heath to the east and extends south to Vestmannsvatni . Southern part of the valley is broken apart by Garth Nupur , passing to the north of Fljótsheiði . Reykjadalur goes to the south of Aðaldalur and are clearly no geographical distinction between the valleys. Laxárdalur progresses southeast of Aðaldalur up Mývatnssveit . Aðaldalur was formerly a separate municipality, Aðaldælahreppur , but is now part of the rural area .
Out of Skjálfandaflói Bay are spread sand but later primary Dalshraun and covers most of the plains, and it is about 100 square kilometers. Main lava suites are two; older lava flowed from Ketildyngju for about 3500 years and 2000 years for the second lava flowed over it from the congestion cities in Myvatn . The lava is widely well-healed, grown birch , only , rice and heather . Northeast it was before destitute of vegetation, but in the middle of the last century there was a healing sand fence and vegetation has been changed for the better since. South side of the valley is fairly wide wetlands. In the valley are widely grassy moors.
Several towns in Aðaldalur but based decentralized. North of the towns are usually the edge Aðaldalur lava. Þéttust is built around Laxá Station and the Hafralækjarskóla , where geothermal and pool . Not far from the The community Ýdalir . Churches are Grenjadastadur and residency in Aðaldalur. Airport is Aðaldalur lava, but there is no longer scheduled.
I Sassi - Chiesa Santa Maria alle Malve (XI sec.).
La Madonna del Latte (1270 - eseguita da Maestro della Bruna) ci mostra la Madonna che allatta il Bambino, in un gesto di tenerezza che probabilmente è rappresentato per ribadire una dimensione più vicina all’uomo di quel Dio autoritario e vendicativo come era concepito nel Medio Evo.
Per non sfiorare la blasfemia il pittore ha dipinto il seno della Madonna in maniera decentrata rispetto alla reale anatomia e di piccole dimensioni.
Nella nicchia affianco, San Michele Arcangelo datato 1250.
L'Arcangelo, nella sua funzione di messaggero di Dio, riveste una sopravveste tempestata di pietre preziose, simbolo degli ambasciatori della corte imperiale di Bisanzio e stringe in una mano un sigillo con una croce greca inscritta.
Nell’altra mano ha il labaro e sotto i suoi piedi si attorciglia il dragone rappresentante il diavolo.
Una iconografia cristiano latina con elementi cristiano orientali armonicamente fusi.
I Sassi - Church of Santa Maria alle Malve (11th century).
The Madonna del Latte (1270 - performed by Maestro della Bruna) shows us the Madonna nursing the Child, in a gesture of tenderness that is probably represented to reaffirm a dimension closer to man than that authoritarian and vindictive God as he was conceived in the Middle Ages.
In order not to touch the blasphemy, the painter painted the breast of the Madonna in a decentralized way with respect to the real anatomy and small in size.
In the niche next to it, San Michele Arcangelo dated 1250.
The Archangel, in his function of messenger of God, wears a surcoat studded with precious stones, symbol of the ambassadors of the imperial court of Byzantium, and holds in one hand a seal with an inscribed Greek cross.
In the other hand he has the banner and under his feet the dragon representing the devil is twisted.
A Latin Christian iconography with harmonically fused Eastern Christian elements.
IMG_0896m
Chittagong Hill Tracts, an area located in the south-east of Bangladesh, with over 13,295 square kilometers and the estimated population of 1.5 million people, is one of the most diverse regions in the country.
This is a home to 12 ethnic groups - the majority Bengali and 11 indigenous communities - Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchangya, Mro, Lushai, Khumi, Chak, Khiyang, Bawm, Pangkhua. Each of them having their own distinctive language, culture, and tradition.
More than two decades of conflicts, the rough hilly terrain and remoteness of villages have impacted the economic development of the region leaving widespread unemployment and over half of the population below poverty line.
The economy of the Hill Tracts heavily depends on agriculture, as nearly two thirds of rural households rely on farming as their primary income.
For many communities, access to basic health care is difficult due to the rough terrain and scattered settlements. Lack of human resources is another big challenge for existing health care.
For similar reasons, access to education is made complicated for many rural children. The difficult terrain makes the journey to school much longer and potentially unsafe. More than half of the children enrolled in primary school drop out in the first years, mainly due to the lack of finance, distance to school, safety, not understanding the subjects and need to stay at home to help parents.
As part of the Peace Accord signed in 1997 a decentralized Local Government was established, with responsibilities delegated to the Regional Council and three Hill District Councils, while the Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs oversees all activities.
Due to the prolonged conflicts in the area, Chittagong Hill Tracts remained outside the mainstream of development assistance for over 25 years.
Following the signing of the Peace Accord, the people of the Hill Tracts entered a new era. The Accord created new opportunities for development assistance. Local people’s enthusiasm have been matched with the support from international donor community to resume development in the region.
Ekklisia Profitis Ilias, Thera, Santorini, Greece.
Rio-Antirrio Bridge, West Greece, Greece
read more: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%E2%80%93Antirrio_bridge
A bit of Escher and Waldo, Fira, Santorini, Greece.
an der Burg von Monolithos auf Rhodos
Yet another tree at the Castle of Monolithos on Rhodes, Greece
Thessaloniki (Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη, often referred to internationally as Thessalonica or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia, the administrative region of Central Macedonia and the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace.[3][4] Its honorific title is Συμπρωτεύουσα (Symprotévousa), literally "co-capital",[5] and stands as a reference to its historical status as the Συμβασιλεύουσα (Symvasilévousa) or "co-reigning" city of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, alongside Constantinople.[6]
According to the preliminary results of the 2011 census, the municipality of Thessaloniki today has a population of 322,240,[1] while the Thessaloniki Urban Area (the contiguous built up area forming the "City of Thessaloniki") has a population of 790,824.[1] Furthermore, the Thessaloniki Metropolitan Area extends over an area of 1,455.62 km2 (562.02 sq mi) and its population in 2011 reached a total of 1,104,460 inhabitants.[1]
Thessaloniki is Greece's second major economic, industrial, commercial and political centre, and a major transportation hub for the rest of southeastern Europe;[7] its commercial port is also of great importance for Greece and the southeastern European hinterland.[7] The city is renowned for its festivals, events and vibrant cultural life in general,[8] and is considered to be Greece's cultural capital.[8] Events such as the Thessaloniki International Trade Fair and the Thessaloniki International Film Festival are held annually, while the city also hosts the largest bi-annual meeting of the Greek diaspora.[9] Thessaloniki is the 2014 European Youth Capital.[10]
Founded in 315 BC by Cassander of Macedon, Thessaloniki's history spans some 2,300 years. An important metropolis by the Roman period, Thessaloniki was the second largest and wealthiest city of the Byzantine Empire. Thessaloniki is home to numerous notable Byzantine monuments, including the Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as well as several Roman, Ottoman and Sephardic Jewish structures. The city's main university, Aristotle University, is the largest in Greece and the Balkans.[11]
Thessaloniki is a popular tourist destination in Greece. In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Thessaloniki as the world's fifth-best party city worldwide, comparable to other cities such as Dubai and Montreal.[12] For 2013 National Geographic Magazine included Thessaloniki in its top tourist destinations worldwide,[13] while in 2014 Financial Times FDI magazine (Foreign Direct Investments) declared Thessaloniki as the best mid-sized European city of the future for human capital and lifestyle.
Etymology
All variations of the city's name derive from the original (and current) appellation in Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη (from Θεσσαλός, Thessalos, and Νίκη, Nike), literally translating to "Thessalian Victory". The name of the city came from the name of a princess, Thessalonike of Macedon, half sister of Alexander the Great, so named because of her birth on the day of the Macedonian victory at the Battle of Crocus Field (353/352 BCE).[16]
The alternative name Salonica (or Salonika) derives from the variant form Σαλονίκη (Saloníki) in popular Greek speech, and has given rise to the form of the city's name in several languages. Names in other languages prominent in the city's history include Солѹнь (Solun) in Old Church Slavonic, סלוניקה (Salonika) in Ladino, Selanik (also Selânik) in Turkish (سلانیك in Ottoman Turkish), Solun (also written as Солун) in the local and neighboring South Slavic languages, Салоники (Saloníki) in Russian, and Sãrunã in Aromanian. In local speech, the city's name is typically pronounced with a dark and deep L characteristic of Macedonian Greek accent.[17][18]
The name often appears in writing in the abbreviated form Θεσ/νίκη
History
From antiquity to the Roman Empire
The city was founded around 315 BC by the King Cassander of Macedon, on or near the site of the ancient town of Therma and 26 other local villages.[20] He named it after his wife Thessalonike,[21] a half-sister of Alexander the Great and princess of Macedon as daughter of Philip II. Under the kingdom of Macedon the city retained its own autonomy and parliament[22] and evolved to become the most important city in Macedon.[21]
After the fall of the kingdom of Macedon in 168 BC, Thessalonica became a free city of the Roman Republic under Mark Antony in 41 BC.[21][23] It grew to be an important trade-hub located on the Via Egnatia,[24] the road connecting Dyrrhachium with Byzantium,[25] which facilitated trade between Thessaloniki and great centers of commerce such as Rome and Byzantium.[26] Thessaloniki also lay at the southern end of the main north-south route through the Balkans along the valleys of the Morava and Axios river valleys, thereby linking the Balkans with the rest of Greece.[27] The city later became the capital of one of the four Roman districts of Macedonia.[24] Later it became the capital of all the Greek provinces of the Roman Empire due to the city's importance in the Balkan peninsula. When the Roman Empire was divided into the tetrarchy, Thessaloniki became the administrative capital of one of the four portions of the Empire under Galerius Maximianus Caesar,[28][29] where Galerius commissioned an imperial palace, a new hippodrome, a triumphal arch and a mausoleum among others.[29][30][31]
In 379 when the Roman Prefecture of Illyricum was divided between the East and West Roman Empires, Thessaloniki became the capital of the new Prefecture of Illyricum.[24] In 390 Gothic troops under the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, led a massacre against the inhabitants of Thessalonica, who had risen in revolt against the Germanic soldiers. With the Fall of Rome in 476, Thessaloniki became the second-largest city of the Eastern Roman Empire.[26] Around the time of the Roman Empire Thessaloniki was also an important center for the spread of Christianity; some scholars hold that the First Epistle to the Thessalonians written by Paul the Apostle is the first written book of the New Testament.
Byzantine era and Middle Ages
From the first years of the Byzantine Empire, Thessaloniki was considered the second city in the Empire after Constantinople,[33][34][35] both in terms of wealth and size.[33] with an population of 150,000 in the mid 1100s.[36] The city held this status until it was transferred to Venice in 1423. In the 14th century the city's population exceeded 100,000 to 150,000,[37][38][39] making it larger than London at the time.[40]
During the 6th and 7th centuries the area around Thessaloniki was invaded by Avars and Slavs, who unsuccessfully laid siege to the city several times.[41] Traditional historiography stipulates that many Slavs settled in the hinterland of Thessaloniki,[42] however, this migration was allegedly on a much smaller scale than previously thought.[42][42][43] In the 9th century, the Byzantine Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius, both natives of the city, created the first literary language of the Slavs, the Glagolic alphabet, most likely based on the Slavic dialect used in the hinterland of their hometown.[44][45][46][47][48]
An Arab naval attack in 904 resulted in the sack of the city.[49] The economic expansion of the city continued through the 12th century as the rule of the Komnenoi emperors expanded Byzantine control to the north. Thessaloniki passed out of Byzantine hands in 1204,[50] when Constantinople was captured by the forces of the Fourth Crusade and incorporated the city and its surrounding territories in the Kingdom of Thessalonica[51] — which then became the largest vassal of the Latin Empire. In 1224, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was overrun by the Despotate of Epirus, a remnant of the former Byzantine Empire, under Theodore Komnenos Doukas who crowned himself Emperor,[52] and the city became the Despotat's capital.[52][53] This era of the Despotate of Epirus is also known as the Empire of Thessalonica.[52][54][55] Following his defeat at Klokotnitsa however in 1230,[52][54] the Empire of Thessalonica became a vassal state of the Second Bulgarian Empire until it was recovered again in 1246, this time by the Nicaean Empire.[52] In 1342,[56] the city saw the rise of the Commune of the Zealots, an anti-aristocratic party formed of sailors and the poor,[57] which is nowadays described as social-revolutionary.[56] The city was practically independent of the rest of the Empire,[56][57][58] as it had its own government, a form of republic.[56] The zealot movement was overthrown in 1350 and the city was reunited with the rest of the Empire.[56]
In 1423, Despot Andronicus, who was in charge of the city, ceded it to the Republic of Venice with the hope that it could be protected from the Ottomans who were besieging the city (there is no evidence to support the oft-repeated story that he sold the city to them). The Venetians held Thessaloniki until it was captured by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II on 29 March 1430.
Ottoman period
When Sultan Murad II captured Thessaloniki and sacked it in 1430, contemporary reports estimated that about one-fifth of the city's population was enslaved.[60] Upon the conquest of Thessaloniki, some of its inhabitants escaped,[61] including intellectuals such as Theodorus Gaza "Thessalonicensis" and Andronicus Callistus.[62] However, the change of sovereignty from the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman one did not affect the city's prestige as a major imperial city and trading hub.[63][64] Thessaloniki and Smyrna, although smaller in size than Constantinople, were the Ottoman Empire's most important trading hubs.[63] Thessaloniki's importance was mostly in the field of shipping,[63] but also in manufacturing,[64] while most of the city's trade was controlled by ethnic Greeks.[63]
During the Ottoman period, the city's population of mainly Greek Jews and Ottoman Muslims (including those of Turkish and Albanian, as well as Bulgarian Muslim and Greek Muslim convert origin) grew substantially. By 1478 Selânik (سلانیك), as the city came to be known in Ottoman Turkish, had a population of 4,320 Muslims, 6,094 Greek Orthodox and some Catholics, but no Jews. Soon after the turn of the 15th to 16th century, nearly 20,000 Sephardic Jews had immigrated to Greece from Spain following their expulsion by the 1492 Alhambra Decree.[65] By c. 1500, the numbers had grown to 7,986 Greeks, 8,575 Muslims, and 3,770 Jews. By 1519, Sephardic Jews numbered 15,715, 54% of the city's population. Some historians consider the Ottoman regime's invitation to Jewish settlement was a strategy to prevent the ethnic Greek population (Eastern Orthodox Christians) from dominating the city.[38]
Thessaloniki was the capital of the Sanjak of Selanik within the wider Rumeli Eyalet (Balkans)[66] until 1826, and subsequently the capital of Selanik Eyalet (after 1867, the Selanik Vilayet).[67][68] This consisted of the sanjaks of Selanik, Serres and Drama between 1826 and 1912.[69] Thessaloniki was also a Janissary stronghold where novice Janissaries were trained. In June 1826, regular Ottoman soldiers attacked and destroyed the Janissary base in Thessaloniki while also killing over 10,000 Janissaries, an event known as The Auspicious Incident in Ottoman history.[70] From 1870, driven by economic growth, the city's population expanded by 70%, reaching 135,000 in 1917.[71]
The last few decades of Ottoman control over the city were an era of revival, particularly in terms of the city's infrastructure. It was at that time that the Ottoman administration of the city acquired an "official" face with the creation of the Command Post[72] while a number of new public buildings were built in the eclectic style in order to project the European face both of Thessaloniki and the Ottoman Empire.[72][73] The city walls were torn down between 1869 and 1889,[74] efforts for a planned expansion of the city are evident as early as 1879,[75] the first tram service started in 1888[76] and the city streets were illuminated with electric lamp posts in 1908.[77] In 1888 Thessaloniki was connected to Central Europe via rail through Belgrade, Monastir in 1893 and Constantinople in 1896.
Since the 20th century
In the early 20th century, Thessaloniki was in the center of radical activities by various groups; the Bulgarian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, founded in 1897,[78] and the Greek Macedonian Committee, founded in 1903.[79] In 1903 an anarchist group known as the Boatmen of Thessaloniki planted bombs in several buildings in Thessaloniki, including the Ottoman Bank, with some assistance from the IMRO. The Greek consulate in Ottoman Thessaloniki (now the Museum of the Macedonian Struggle) served as the center of operations for the Greek guerillas. In 1908 the Young Turks movement broke out in the city, sparking the Young Turk Revolution.[80]
The Ottoman Feth-i Bülend being sunk in Thessaloniki in 1912 by a Greek ship during the First Balkan War.
Constantine I of Greece with George I of Greece and the Greek army enter the city.
As the First Balkan War broke out, Greece declared war on the Ottoman Empire and expanded its borders. When Eleftherios Venizelos, Prime Minister at the time, was asked if the Greek army should move towards Thessaloniki or Monastir (now Bitola, Republic of Macedonia), Venizelos replied "Salonique à tout prix!" (Thessaloniki, at all costs!).[81] As both Greece and Bulgaria wanted Thessaloniki, the Ottoman garrison of the city entered negotiations with both armies.[82] On 8 November 1912 (26 October Old Style), the feast day of the city's patron saint, Saint Demetrius, the Greek Army accepted the surrender of the Ottoman garrison at Thessaloniki.[83] The Bulgarian army arrived one day after the surrender of the city to Greece and Tahsin Pasha, ruler of the city, told the Bulgarian officials that "I have only one Thessaloniki, which I have surrendered".[82] After the Second Balkan War, Thessaloniki and the rest of the Greek portion of Macedonia were officially annexed to Greece by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913.[84] On 18 March 1913 George I of Greece was assassinated in the city by Alexandros Schinas.[85]
In 1915, during World War I, a large Allied expeditionary force established a base at Thessaloniki for operations against pro-German Bulgaria.[86] This culminated in the establishment of the Macedonian Front, also known as the Salonika Front.[87][88] In 1916, pro-Venizelist Greek army officers and civilians, with the support of the Allies, launched an uprising,[89] creating a pro-Allied[90] temporary government by the name of the "Provisional Government of National Defence"[89][91] that controlled the "New Lands" (lands that were gained by Greece in the Balkan Wars, most of Northern Greece including Greek Macedonia, the North Aegean as well as the island of Crete);[89][91] the official government of the King in Athens, the "State of Athens",[89] controlled "Old Greece"[89][91] which were traditionally monarchist. The State of Thessaloniki was disestablished with the unification of the two opposing Greek governments under Venizelos, following the abdication of King Constantine in 1917.[86][91]
The 1st Battalion of the National Defence army marches on its way to the front.
Aerial picture of the Great Fire of 1917.
Most of the old center of the city was destroyed by the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917, which started accidentally by an unattended kitchen fire on 18 August 1917.[92] The fire swept through the centre of the city, leaving 72,000 people homeless; according to the Pallis Report, most of them were Jewish (50,000). Many businesses were destroyed, as a result, 70% of the population were unemployed.[92] Also a number of religious structures of the three major faiths were lost. Nearly one-quarter of the total population of approximately 271,157 became homeless.[92] Following the fire the government prohibited quick rebuilding, so it could implement the new redesign of the city according to the European-style urban plan[6] prepared by a group of architects, including the Briton Thomas Mawson, and headed by French architect Ernest Hébrard.[92] Property values fell from 6.5 million Greek drachmas to 750,000.[93]
After the defeat of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War and during the break-up of the Ottoman Empire, a population exchange took place between Greece and Turkey.[90] Over 160,000 ethnic Greeks deported from the former Ottoman Empire were resettled in the city,[90] changing its demographics. Additionally many of the city's Muslims were deported to Turkey, ranging at about 20,000 people.[94]
During World War II Thessaloniki was heavily bombarded by Fascist Italy (with 232 people dead, 871 wounded and over 800 buildings damaged or destroyed in November 1940 alone),[95] and, the Italians having failed to succeed in their invasion of Greece, it fell to the forces of Nazi Germany on 8 April 1941[96] and remained under German occupation until 30 October 1944 when it was liberated by the Greek People's Liberation Army.[97] The Nazis soon forced the Jewish residents into a ghetto near the railroads and on 15 March 1943 began the deportation process of the city's 56,000 Jews to its concentration camps.[98][99] They deported over 43,000 of the city's Jews in concentration camps,[98] where most were killed in the gas chambers. The Germans also deported 11,000 Jews to forced labor camps, where most perished.[100] Only 1,200 Jews live in the city today.
Part of Eleftherias Square during the Axis occupation.
The importance of Thessaloniki to Nazi Germany can be demonstrated by the fact that, initially, Hitler had planned to incorporate it directly in the Third Reich[101] (that is, make it part of Germany) and not have it controlled by a puppet state such as the Hellenic State or an ally of Germany (Thessaloniki had been promised to Yugoslavia as a reward for joining the Axis on 25 March 1941).[102] Having been the first major city in Greece to fall to the occupying forces just two days after the German invasion, it was in Thessaloniki that the first Greek resistance group was formed (under the name «Ελευθερία», Eleftheria, "Freedom")[103] as well as the first anti-Nazi newspaper in an occupied territory anywhere in Europe,[104] also by the name Eleftheria. Thessaloniki was also home to a military camp-converted-concentration camp, known in German as "Konzentrationslager Pavlo Mela" (Pavlos Melas Concentration Camp),[105] where members of the resistance and other non-favourable people towards the German occupation from all over Greece[105] were held either to be killed or sent to concentration camps elsewhere in Europe.[105] In the 1946 monarchy referendum, the majority of the locals voted in favour of a republic, contrary to the rest of Greece.[106]
After the war, Thessaloniki was rebuilt with large-scale development of new infrastructure and industry throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Many of its architectural treasures still remain, adding value to the city as a tourist destination, while several early Christian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki were added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1988.[107] In 1997, Thessaloniki was celebrated as the European Capital of Culture,[108] sponsoring events across the city and the region. Agency established to oversee the cultural activities of that year 1997 was still in existence by 2010.[109] In 2004 the city hosted a number of the football events as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics.[110]
Today Thessaloniki has become one of the most important trade and business hubs in Southeastern Europe, with its port, the Port of Thessaloniki being one of the largest in the Aegean and facilitating trade throughout the Balkan hinterland.[7] On 26 October 2012 the city celebrated its centennial since its incorporation into Greece.[111] The city also forms one of the largest student centres in Southeastern Europe, is host to the largest student population in Greece and will be the European Youth Capital in 2014
Geography
Geology
Thessaloniki lies on the northern fringe of the Thermaic Gulf on its eastern coast and is bound by Mount Chortiatis on its southeast. Its proximity to imposing mountain ranges, hills and fault lines, especially towards its southeast have historically made the city prone to geological changes.
Since medieval times, Thessaloniki was hit by strong earthquakes, notably in 1759, 1902, 1978 and 1995.[113] On 19–20 June 1978, the city suffered a series of powerful earthquakes, registering 5.5 and 6.5 on the Richter scale.[114][115] The tremors caused considerable damage to a number of buildings and ancient monuments,[114] but the city withstood the catastrophe without any major problems.[115] One apartment building in central Thessaloniki collapsed during the second earthquake, killing many, raising the final death toll to 51.[114][115]
Climate
Thessaloniki's climate is directly affected by the sea it is situated on.[116] The city lies in a transitional climatic zone, so its climate displays characteristics of several climates. According to the Köppen climate classification, it is a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) that borders on a semi-arid climate (BSk), with annual average precipitation of 450 millimetres (18 in) due to the Pindus rain shadow drying the westerly winds. However, the city has a summer precipitation between 20 to 30 millimetres (0.79 to 1.18 in), which borders it close to a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa).
Winters are relatively dry, with common morning frost. Snowfalls are sporadic, but οccur more or less every winter, but the snow cover does not last for more than a few days. Fog is common, with an average of 193 foggy days in a year.[117] During the coldest winters, temperatures can drop to −10 °C (14 °F).[117] The record minimum temperature in Thessaloniki was −14 °C (7 °F).[118] On average, Thessaloniki experiences frost (sub-zero temperature) 32 days a year.[117] The coldest month of the year in the city is January, with an average 24-hour temperature of 6 °C (43 °F).[119] Wind is also usual in the winter months, with December and January having an average wind speed of 26 km/h (16 mph).[117]
Thessaloniki's summers are hot with rather humid nights.[117] Maximum temperatures usually rise above 30 °C (86 °F),[117] but rarely go over 40 °C (104 °F);[117] the average number of days the temperature is above 32 °C (90 °F) is 32.[117] The maximum recorded temperature in the city was 42 °C (108 °F).[117][118] Rain seldom falls in summer, mainly during thunderstorms. In the summer months Thessaloniki also experiences strong heat waves.[120] The hottest month of the year in the city is July, with an average 24-hour temperature of 26 °C (79 °F).[119] The average wind speed for June and July in Thessaloniki is 20 kilometres per hour (12 mph)
Government
According to the Kallikratis reform, as of 1 January 2011 the Thessaloniki Urban Area (Greek: Πολεοδομικό Συγκρότημα Θεσσαλονίκης) which makes up the "City of Thessaloniki", is made up of six self-governing municipalities (Greek: Δήμοι) and one municipal unit (Greek: Δημοτική ενότητα). The municipalities that are included in the Thessaloniki Urban Area are those of Thessaloniki (the city center and largest in population size), Kalamaria, Neapoli-Sykies, Pavlos Melas, Kordelio-Evosmos, Ampelokipoi-Menemeni, and the municipal unit of Pylaia, part of the municipality of Pylaia-Chortiatis. Prior to the Kallikratis reform, the Thessaloniki Urban Area was made up of twice as many municipalities, considerably smaller in size, which created bureaucratic problems.[123]
Thessaloniki Municipality
The municipality of Thessaloniki (Greek: Δήμος Θεσαλονίκης) is the second most populous in Greece, after Athens, with a population of 322,240[1] people (in 2011) and an area of 17.832 km2 (7 sq mi). The municipality forms the core of the Thessaloniki Urban Area, with its central district (the city center), referred to as the Kentro, meaning 'center' or 'downtown'.
The institution of mayor of Thessaloniki was inaugurated under the Ottoman Empire, in 1912. The first mayor of Thessaloniki was Osman Sait Bey, while the current mayor of the municipality of Thessaloniki is Yiannis Boutaris. In 2011, the municipality of Thessaloniki had a budget of €464.33 million[124] while the budget of 2012 stands at €409.00 million.[125]
According to an article in The New York Times, the way in which the present mayor of Thessaloniki is treating the city's debt and oversized administration problems could be used as an example by Greece's central government for a successful strategy in dealing with these problems.[126]
Other
Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece. It is an influential city for the northern parts of the country and is the capital of the region of Central Macedonia and the Thessaloniki regional unit. The Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace is also based in Thessaloniki, being that the city is the de facto capital of the Greek region of Macedonia.
It is customary every year for the Prime Minister of Greece to announce his administration's policies on a number of issues, such as the economy, at the opening night of the Thessaloniki International Trade Fair. In 2010, during the first months of the 2010 Greek debt crisis, the entire cabinet of Greece met in Thessaloniki to discuss the country's future.[127]
In the Hellenic Parliament, the Thessaloniki urban area constitutes a 16-seat constituency. As of the national elections of 17 June 2012 the largest party in Thessaloniki is New Democracy with 27.8%, followed by the Coalition of the Radical Left (27.0%) and the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (10.2%).[128] The table below summarizes the results of the latest elections.
Cityscape
Architecture
Architecture in Thessaloniki is the direct result of the city's position at the centre of all historical developments in the Balkans. Aside from its commercial importance, Thessaloniki was also for many centuries the military and administrative hub of the region, and beyond this the transportation link between Europe and the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel / Palestine). Merchants, traders and refugees from all over Europe settled in the city. The need for commercial and public buildings in this new era of prosperity led to the construction of large edifices in the city center. During this time, the city saw the building of banks, large hotels, theatres, warehouses, and factories. Architects who designed some of the most notable buildings of the city, in the late 19th and early 20th century, include Vitaliano Poselli, Pietro Arrigoni, Xenophon Paionidis, Eli Modiano, Moshé Jacques, Jean Joseph Pleyber, Frederic Charnot, Ernst Ziller, Roubens Max, Levi Ernst, Angelos Siagas and others, using mainly the styles of Eclecticism and Art Nouveau.
The city layout changed after 1870, when the seaside fortifications gave way to extensive piers, and many of the oldest walls of the city were demolished, including those surrounding the White Tower, which today stands as the main landmark of the city. As parts of the early Byzantine walls were demolished, this allowed the city to expand east and west along the coast.[129]
The expansion of Eleftherias Square towards the sea completed the new commercial hub of the city and at the time was considered one of the most vibrant squares of the city. As the city grew, workers moved to the western districts, due to their proximity to factories and industrial activities; while the middle and upper classes gradually moved from the city-center to the eastern suburbs, leaving mainly businesses. In 1917, a devastating fire swept through the city and burned uncontrollably for 32 hours.[71] It destroyed the city's historic center and a large part of its architectural heritage, but paved the way for modern development and allowed Thessaloniki the development of a proper European city center, featuring wider diagonal avenues and monumental squares; which the city initially lacked – much of what was considered to be 'essential' in European architecture.
City Center
After the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917, a team of architects and urban planners including Thomas Mawson and Ernest Hebrard, a French architect, chose the Byzantine era as the basis of their (re)building designs for Thessaloniki's city center. The new city plan included axes, diagonal streets and monumental squares, with a street grid that would channel traffic smoothly. The plan of 1917 included provisions for future population expansions and a street and road network that would be, and still is sufficient today.[71] It contained sites for public buildings and provided for the restoration of Byzantine churches and Ottoman mosques.
The Metropolitan Church of Saint Gregory Palamas, designed by Ernst Ziller.
Today the city center of Thessaloniki includes the features designed as part of the plan and forms the point in the city where most of the public buildings, historical sites, entertainment venues and stores are located. The center is characterized by its many historical buildings, arcades, laneways and distinct architectural styles such as Art Nouveau and Art Deco, which can be seen on many of its buildings.
Also called the historic center, it is divided into several districts, of which include Ladadika (where many entertainment venues and tavernas are located), Kapani (were the city's central city market is located), Diagonios, Navarinou, Rotonta, Agia Sofia and Ippodromio (white tower), which are all located around Thessaloniki's most central point, Aristotelous Square.
The west point of the city center is home to Thessaloniki's law courts, its central international railway station and the port, while on its eastern side stands the city's two universities, the Thessaloniki International Exhibition Center, the city's main stadium, its archaeological and Byzantine museums, the new city hall and its central parklands and gardens, namely those of the ΧΑΝΘ/Palios Zoologikos Kipos and Pedio tou Areos. The central road arteries that pass through the city center, designed in the Ernest Hebrard plan, include those of Tsimiski, Egnatia, Nikis, Mitropoleos, Venizelou and St. Demetrius avenues.
Ano Poli
Ano Poli (also called Old Town and literally the Upper Town) is the heritage listed district north of Thessaloniki's city center that was not engulfed by the great fire of 1917 and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site by ministerial actions of Melina Merkouri, during the 1980s. It consists of Thessaloniki's most traditional part of the city, still featuring small stone paved streets, old squares and homes featuring old Greek and Ottoman architecture.
Ano Poli also, is the highest point in Thessaloniki and as such, is the location of the city's acropolis, its Byzantine fort, the Heptapyrgion, a large portion of the city's remaining walls, and with many of its additional Ottoman and Byzantine structures still standing. The area provides access to the Seich Sou Forest National Park[131] and features amphitheatric views of the whole city and the Thermaic Gulf. On clear days Mount Olympus, at about 100 km (62 mi) away across the gulf, can also be seen towering the horizon.
Southeastern Thessaloniki up until the 1920s was home to the city's most affluent residents and formed the outermost suburbs of the city at the time, with the area close to the Thermaic Gulf coast called Exoches, from the 19th century holiday villas which defined the area. Today southeastern Thessaloniki has in some way become a natural extension of the city center, with the avenues of Megalou Alexandrou, Georgiou Papandreou (Antheon), Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, Delfon, Konstantinou Karamanli (Nea Egnatia) and Papanastasiou passing through it, enclosing an area traditionally called Dépôt (Ντεπώ), from the name of the old tram station, owned by a French company. The area extends to Kalamaria and Pylaia, about 9 km (5.59 mi) from the White Tower in the city centre.
Some of the most notable mansions and villas of the old-era of the city remain along Vasilissis Olgas Avenue. Built for the most wealthy residents and designed by well known architects they are used today as museums, art galleries or remain as private properties. Some of them include Villa Bianca, Villa Ahmet Kapanci, Villa Modiano, Villa Mordoch, Villa Mehmet Kapanci, Hatzilazarou Mansion, Chateau Mon Bonheur (often called red tower) and others.
Most of southeastern Thessaloniki is characterized by its modern architecture and apartment buildings, home to the middle-class and more than half of the municipality of Thessaloniki population. Today this area of the city is also home to 3 of the city's main football stadiums, the Thessaloniki Concert Hall, the Posidonio aquatic and athletic complex, the Naval Command post of Northern Greece and the old royal palace (called Palataki), located on the most westerly point of Karabournaki cape. The municipality of Kalamaria is also located in southeastern Thessaloniki and has become this part of the city's most sought after areas, with many open spaces and home to high end bars, cafés and entertainment venues, most notably on Plastira street, along the coast
Northwestern Thessaloniki had always been associated with industry and the working class because as the city grew during the 1920s, many workers had moved there, due to its proximity near factories and industrial activities. Today many factories and industries have been moved further out west and the area is experiencing rapid growth as does the southeast. Many factories in this area have been converted to cultural centres, while past military grounds that are being surrounded by densely built neighborhoods are awaiting transformation into parklands.
Northwest Thessaloniki forms the main entry point into the city of Thessaloniki with the avenues of Monastiriou, Lagkada and 26is Octovriou passing through it, as well as the extension of the A1 motorway, feeding into Thessaloniki's city center. The area is home to the Macedonia InterCity Bus Terminal (KTEL), the Zeitenlik Allied memorial military cemetery and to large entertainment venues of the city, such as Milos, Fix, Vilka (which are housed in converted old factories). Northwestern Thessaloniki is also home to Moni Lazariston, located in Stavroupoli, which today forms one of the most important cultural centers for the city.
To read more please click :-
... in the Valkhofpark at Nijmegen City (NL) near the river Rhine branch Waal. Charlemagne (Carolus Magnus) had been there once as the imperators used several decentralized palatinates at that time of the early middle ages. A capital city did not yet exist in Charles' empire.
Die Mühlenmole am Mandraki Hafen von Rhodos Stadt
Windmills at Mandraki Harbour in Rhodes (City) on the island of Rhodes, Greece
3 bells in Thira, Santorini, Greece.
Artisanal fishing: definition, explanations
Artisanal fishing distinguishes fisheries that involve technical but non-industrialized operators; typically a small, decentralized operation.
Artisanal fishing normally comes from subsistence fishing although sometimes the catch may be sold.
Usually, fishing trips are short and often with coastal fishing and small fishing vessels, but in developed countries these vessels may refer to trawlers, purse seiners or longliners. See also recreational fishing.
The boundaries of small and large fishing structures vary by country and fishery.
To get the shot my camera was lying screen down on the floor so I used the WIFI camera connect function on my phone so I could view the shot via live view. I was then able to tweak the angle of the camera to get it just right.
Fireworks - NDP Preview 2
The Singapore National Day Parade is a national ceremony in Singapore that, as its name implies, includes a parade on Singapore's National Day on August 9, in commemoration of Singapore's independence that is usually held at the Float @Marina Bay and various decentralized venues all over Singapore, Padang and the National Stadium.
This year, NDP will bring the mobile column to five heartland sites on 10 August 2019. The mobile column will be travelling to Bishan, Geylang Serai, Jurong East, Punggol, and Woodlands, where there will also be carnivals organised by the People’s Association. The one-day celebrations will culminate with dazzling fireworks displays at each of the five sites.
These are a series of photos, long exposures of the Marina Bay and Central Business District from the Sail @ Marina Bay - The structure of The Sail is 245 m (804 ft) with 70 storeys and is one of Singapore's tallest condominium/apartment. The building was erected on reclaimed land and was designed by Peter Pran and Timothy Johnson with leading design firm NBBJ. The two buildings include a glass facade, sculpted Marina Bay Tower to look like a sail, and configured the complex representative of a huge canyon, reflecting his utilisation of inspirations by the sun, the wind, and the water respectively.
The Silversmithing Museum is situated in the Castele of Ioannina - To Μουσειο Αργυροτεχνιας βρισκεται στο Καστρο Ιωαννινων
Mühle am Mandraki Hafen von Rhodos Stadt
Windmill at Mandraki Harbour in Rhodes (City) on the island of Rhodes, Greece
Italien / Friaul - Cividale del Friuli
Cividale del Friuli (Friulian: Cividât, locally Zividât; German: Östrich; Slovene: Čedad) is a town and comune (municipality) in the Regional decentralization entity of Udine, part of the North-Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia. The town lies 135 metres (443 ft) above sea-level in the foothills of the eastern Alps, 15 kilometres (9 mi) by rail from the city of Udine and close to the Slovenian border. It is situated on the river Natisone, which forms a picturesque ravine here.[3] Formerly an important regional power, it is today a quiet, small town that attracts tourists thanks to its medieval center.
History
Archaeological findings reveal that the area was already inhabited in Paleolithic and Neolithic times. During the Iron Age the region was settled by Veneti and Celts. Due to the location's strategic position on the northeastern frontier of Roman Italy, in 50 BC, the Romans founded there a castrum, which afterwards was transformed by Julius Caesar into a forum and its name changed into Forum Iulii ("Julius' marketplace"; Fréjus had the same Roman name). Not long afterward, the forum became a municipium and its citizens were inscribed in the Roman tribe Scaptia.
After the destruction of Aquileia and Iulium Carnicum (Zuglio) in 452 AD, Forum Iulii became the chief town of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it. In 568 the city was the first major centre occupied by Alboin's Lombard invasion of Italy, then part of the Byzantine Empire. The city was chosen as first capital of the newly formed Lombard Kingdom, then granted by Alboin to his nephew Gisulf as the capital of a Lombard Duchy of Friuli. After the Lombards were defeated by the Franks, (774), following the last Lombard resistance under Hrodgaud of Friuli (776) Forum Julii changed its name to Civitas Austriae, Charlemagne's Italian "City of the East".
Under the Carolingian settlement with the Papacy, the patriarchs of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively. When the Patriarchal State of Friuli was founded in 1077, Cividale was chosen as the capital.
According to James Burke, a 1331 siege of Cividale was one of the first deployments of what we would now call cannons, in the early form known as a bombard. Between July and September 1409, a church council was held at Cividale by Pope Gregory XII (Roman Obedience). It was poorly attended and achieved nothing. In 1420 Cividale was annexed to the Republic of Venice. After the Napoleonic Wars Cividale became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. It was ceded to Kingdom of Italy in 1866.
Main sights
he historical center of the town is dominated by Piazza del Duomo, which is where the National Archaeological Museum of Cividale del Friuli is located. Close by is the Palazzo dei Provveditori Veneti, constructed in 1565 and designed by Andrea Palladio. The town is split in two by the Natisone River, which is spanned by the Devil's Bridge (15th century, rebuilt in 1918). The Celtic Hypogeum is a subterranean series of halls carved in the rock in ancient times, whose destination remains unclear: uses as either Celtic funerary monument or a Roman (Lombard) jail has been proposed.
The Cathedral (Duomo) was built in the 15th century over a pre-existing construction built in the 8th century. It is a Venetian Gothic building, finished in the 16th century by architect Pietro Lombardo, featuring interventions from the 18th century also. The interior houses an altar dedicated to the Madonna, in the right aisle, and the altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrino II (1195−1204), a silver retable which had been inscribed in Latin by the means of individual letter punches, 250 years before the invention of modern movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg.
The Christian Museum annexed to the Duomo houses outstanding examples of Lombard sculpture. It contains some interesting relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185. The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, and works of art in gold, silver and ivory formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The fine 15th-century Ponte del Diavolo leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard king Ratchis.
The small church of Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle (also known as Lombard Temple), next to the Natisone river, is a notable example of High Middle Ages art sometimes attributed to the 8th century, but probably later. Included in the old Lombard quarter, it was probably used as Palatine Chapel by the Lombard dukes and king's functionaries. The fine decorations, statues and stuccoes (11th or 12th century) housed in the interior, show a strong Byzantine influence.
In the collegiata, the altarpiece of Pellegrinus II (1195−1204) is a silver retable which had been inscribed in Latin by the means of individual letter punches, 250 years before the invention of modern movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg. On 25 June 2011 a part of the historical centre of Cividale (the one belonging to the Lombards era) entered the UNESCO heritage list.
Tradition and Folklore
On 6 January residents celebrate the Messa dello Spadone (Mass of the Broadsword), a religious rite observed with an historical reenactment of Patriarch Marquard of Randeck’s arrival in Cividale in 1366.
Game of Truc
The game of Truc is an old game played by children and adults on Easter and the Monday following Easter (called Pasquetta, or Little Easter). A manuscript preserved in the National Archaeology Museum of Cividale del Friuli traces the game back to the 18th century. While Truc is exclusive to the central squares of Cividale, a similar game is played in Venice and in Emilia Romagna (Italy). An Easter game played in Lusatia (Germany) called Waleien also has similar rules to Truc.
The game takes place in a large, round basin made of sand with a ramp leading into it. Players roll colored hard-boiled eggs and, according to precise rules, aim to touch the other eggs rolled into the basin for a number of points. The game’s name is an onomatopoeia imitating the sound the eggs make when they touch.
Other attractions
The town has a number of small osterias which serve distinctive local wines. Of particular note are Tocai friulano, Verduzzo and Refosco dal peduncolo rosso.
(Wikipedia)
Cividale del Friuli (furlanisch Cividât, slowenisch Čedad, deutsch gelegentlich Östrich) ist eine Stadt in der nordostitalienischen Region Friaul-Julisch Venetien mit rund 11.000 Einwohnern.
Name
In römischer Zeit hieß die Stadt Forum Iulii, aus dem später Friuli, der Name für die gesamte Region, hervorging. Als das Langobardenreich im Jahre 776 endgültig durch die Franken besiegt wurde, erhielt sie den Namen Civitas Austriae, was „Stadt des Ostens“ bedeutet, da Italien, ähnlich wie das Frankenreich, in einen westlichen (Neustrien) und einen östlichen (Austrasien) Teil gegliedert wurde. Der Name Cividal d'Austria hielt sich bis in die frühe Neuzeit als volkstümlicher Name. Daraus entwickelten sich Cividale del Friuli, was seit dem 16. Jahrhundert gebräuchlich wurde, aber auch der deutsche Name Östrich.
Einwohnerzahl
Cividale zählte am 31. Dezember 2024 10.744 Einwohner. Hundert Jahre zuvor hatte sie bereits 11.622 Einwohner, seither stagniert die Zahl etwa zwischen 10.000 und 11.700. 1881 hatte sie 8.118 Einwohner, 1878 8.303. Kurz nach dem Anschluss an Italien zählte man 6.812 Einwohner. Bis zur Industrialisierung im späteren 19. Jahrhundert war die Bevölkerung deutlich kleiner. So zählte man 1824 nur 5.307 Einwohner.
Für die Zeit vor der genaueren Erfassung liegen für das 18. Jahrhundert gleichfalls, wenn auch nur angenäherte Zahlen vor. So nennt Cristoforo Tentori für das späte 18. Jahrhundert rund 2.000 Einwohner.
Geographie
Cividale liegt rund 17 km östlich von Udine und wenig mehr als 10 km von der Grenze zu Slowenien entfernt. Die Stadt erstreckt sich beiderseits des kleinen Flusses Natisone und liegt auf den äußersten Ausläufern der Julischen Alpen.
Geschichte
Die Stadt war ursprünglich eine keltische Siedlung, die von Gaius Iulius Caesar zur Stadt erhoben wurde (lat. Forum Iulii, Marktplatz des Iulius). Im Zuge der Völkerwanderung hielt sich in der Stadt eine Bevölkerung, die kulturell und durch ihre dem Ladinischen verwandte Furlanische Sprache mit den Alpenromanen verbunden war. Kirchlich unterstand Cividale ab dem 8. Jahrhundert über lange Zeit dem Patriarchat von Aquileia.
Während der Völkerwanderungszeit hatte seine Bevölkerung besonders zu leiden, da die Stadt unmittelbar westlich der Sperrwerke der Claustra Alpium Iuliarum im Birnbaumer Wald lag, eines Gebirgspasses in den Julischen Alpen, der häufig von plündernden Armeen und ganzen Völkern als Einfallstor nach Italien benutzt wurde. Allerdings konnte die Stadt auf Umwegen auch von den Zerstörungen, etwa durch die Hunnen unter Attila im Jahr 452 profitieren, als diese die Provinzhauptstadt Aquileia zerstörten. So übernahm Cividale, von dem man annahm, es sei nun zur Provinzhauptstadt avanciert, und das tatsächlich schnell wuchs, die Verteidigung der Alpen. Dies schloss auch die Umsiedlung von Speichern für die Armee ein.
Die Stadt gehörte nach dem Untergang Westroms zunächst zum Reich Odoakers (bis 493), dann zum Ostgotenreich Theoderichs und schließlich zu Byzanz.
Im Herbst 568 wurde die Stadt, wohl kampflos, von den Langobarden besetzt, die erst seit wenigen Monaten begonnen hatten, nach Norditalien zu ziehen. Cividale wurde zum Mittelpunkt des Herzogtums Friaul gemacht. Dessen erster Herzog wurde Gisulf I. Um das Jahr 610 wurde Cividale allerdings von den Awaren geplündert. Nachdem Herzog Gisulf II. in der Schlacht gefallen war, suchte seine Frau Romilda mit ihren Söhnen in ihren Mauern Zuflucht. Den Awaren gelang es in die Stadt einzudringen. Den Berichten des Paulus Diaconus zufolge soll Romilda, die Witwe des Herzogs, selbst die Tore der Stadt geöffnet haben, da sie von der Schönheit des Barbarenherrschers geblendet war. Die männlichen Stadtbewohner wurden ermordet, die Frauen und Kinder unter den Awaren aufgeteilt, Romilda selbst wurde ermordet. Nur den Kindern Gisulfs gelang die Flucht.
Nach der Historia Langobardorum des Paulus Diaconus wurde Calixtus, der adlige, langobardische Diakon aus Treviso, mit Unterstützung König Liutprands zum Bischof von Cividale erhoben (zwischen 718 und 728). Als Nachfolger des Serenus († 730) führte er den Titel eines Patriarchen von Aquileia. Nun folgte ein heftiger Streit um den Sitz in Cividale, denn wegen der Streifzüge der Slawen wurde dem Bischof von Zuglio (Krain) der Umzug in die Hauptstadt des Herzogtums, nach Cividale, genehmigt. Herzog Pemmo sträubte sich aber gegen den avisierten Umzug des Patriarchen von Cormòns, einem kleinen Städtchen, in seine Hauptstadt. Kurzerhand beanspruchte Calixtus die Residenz des besagten flüchtigen Bischofs vor den Slawen, womit er den Herzog zu übertölpeln versuchte. Pemmo, der den Patriarchen gefangensetzen ließ, wurde nun selbst vor das königliche Gericht gezerrt und inhaftiert. Nun zog Pemmos ältester Sohn Ratchis mit Genehmigung des Königs in die Residenz ein. Die Residenz des Patriarchen Calixtus entstand dort, wo sich heute der Palast der venezianischen Proveditori befindet.
Unter den Karolingern, die 774 das Langobardenreich erobert hatten, wurde Cividale Teil der Mark Friaul, dann der Markgrafschaft Verona, gelangte dann unter die Landesherrschaft des Patriarchen von Aquileia. Das Patriarchat fiel wiederum 1421 an die Republik Venedig, womit eine sehr viel stärkere Ausrichtung auf deren Bedürfnisse erfolgte. Cividale war bereits 1419 an die Republik gefallen. Der spätere Doge Francesco Donà ließ 1519 bis 1521 die Befestigungswerke wiederherstellen.
Ab 1553 wurde die Stadt direkt von Venedig regiert. Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts wurde die Stadt von einer der Pestwellen getroffen. Um diese Zeit verlor Cividale die Dominanz in der Provinz an Udine.
Es folgte die Herrschaft der Habsburger (kurz von einem französischen Intermezzo unterbrochen) und 1866 die Eingliederung in das Königreich Italien. Während der österreichischen Zeit erlebte die Kommune einen wirtschaftlichen Niedergang. Erst am 24. Juni 1886 wurde Cividale unter der Federführung der Società Veneta per Imprese e Costruzioni Pubbliche aus Padua an das Eisenbahnnetz angebunden.
Am 27. Oktober 1917 erlitt die italienische Armee ein Jahr vor Kriegsende eine schwere Niederlage bei Cividale gegen die deutsche Armee. Erst im Oktober 1918 gelang Italien die Rückeroberung der Stadt.
Nach dem Sturz Mussolinis beanspruchte das nationalsozialistische Deutsche Reich die Herrschaft über Italien. Wie die gesamte Region Friaul – Julisch Venetien gehörte Cividale seit Beginn der deutschen Besatzung nach Bekanntwerden der italienischen Kapitulation von September 1943 bis April 1945 zur für eine spätere Angliederung vorgesehenen Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland. Ab Mitte September 1943 diente die „Principe Umberto“-Kaserne den Besatzern als Ortskommandantur. In der Folge wurde diese Kaserne zu einem der drei größten Zentren zur Partisanenbekämpfung in der Region. Heinrich Himmler erklärte die gesamte Region wegen der umfangreichen Partisanenaktivitäten am 9. November 1943 zum „Bandenkampfgebiet“. Bereits am 2. Oktober 1943 war auf dem Kasernenareal Antonio Rieppi, ein Mitglied der Garibaldi Brigade „Natisone“, ermordet worden. Mitte Juli 1944 zogen Einheiten der 24. Waffen-Gebirgs-(Karstjäger-)Division in Cividale ein. Mindestens 113 Menschen wurden bis Ende April 1945 auf diesem Areal umgebracht, ihre Leichen in Massengräbern am Ufer des hinter der Kaserne fließenden Natisone verscharrt. Diese Massengräber werden „Fosse del Natisone“ genannt. Am 18. Dezember 1944 wurden im Sportstadion acht Partisanen erschossen.
Cividale del Friuli blieb beim Erdbeben im Friaul 1976 nahezu unversehrt, obwohl es genau auf jener Linie der am meisten heimgesuchten Orte liegt, die sich an den Südhängen und im Vorland der Julisch-Karnischen Alpen hinzieht.
Wirtschaft und Verkehr
Zu erreichen ist Cividale über die Staatsstraße SS 54 von Udine nach Kobarid in Slowenien (eigentlich nur noch bis zur Grenzstadt Pulfero), oder über die Bahnlinie Udine–Cividale, die seit 1886 verkehrt.
Sehenswürdigkeiten
Teufelsbrücke
Über den Natisone führt die Teufelsbrücke, das Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Der Entstehungssage nach baute der Teufel die Brücke über den reißenden Fluss. Als Lohn sollte er die Seele des Ersten, der sie benutzte, erhalten. Nach der Fertigstellung jagten die Bürger jedoch einen Hund über die Brücke. Am Flussufer ist in den Stein ein Gewölbe eingehauen, das als keltisches Hypogäum, römischer Kerker oder auch langobardisches Gefängnis bekannt ist.
Piazza del Duomo
In der Altstadt befindet sich auf der zentralen Piazza del Duomo der Palazzo Pretorio oder auch Palazzo dei Provveditori Veneti genannt, dessen Entwurf Andrea Palladio zugeschrieben wird und der zwischen 1565 und 1586 errichtet wurde. Seit 1990 ist dort das Archäologische Nationalmuseum untergebracht. Neben der Sammlung langobardischer Fundstücke sind auch Teile der zum UNESCO-Weltdokumentenerbe gehörenden Reichenauer Handschriften aufbewahrt. In der Nähe der Piazza befindet sich der 1565 errichtete Stadtpalast.
Dom Santa Maria Assunta
Der dreischiffige Dom Santa Maria Assunta (Mariä Himmelfahrt) aus dem 14. Jahrhundert wurde nach dem Einsturz im Jahr 1502 unter Leitung des Architekten Pietro Lombardo wieder aufgebaut. 1909 erhob Papst Pius X. den Dom zur Basilica minor. Er beherbergt Werke von beachtlichem künstlerischen und historischen Wert. Den Hochaltar schmückt ein Altaraufsatz des Patriarchen Pilgrim II. (1195–1204). Die lateinische Inschrift wurde mit Hilfe einzelner Buchstabenpunzen hergestellt – über 200 Jahre vor Erfindung des Buchdrucks mit beweglichen Lettern durch Gutenberg. An der Nordwand des linken Seitenschiffes hängt ein lebensgroßes Holzkruzifix aus dem 13. Jahrhundert.
An den Dom angeschlossen ist das Museo Cristiano, in dem sich u. a. ein Langobardenthron und das Calixtus-Taufbecken befinden. Für das Alltagsleben aufschlussreich sind Fresken und in Sgraffitotechnik ausgeführte Darstellungen des langobardischen Alltags.
Kloster Santa Maria (Tempietto longobardo)
Der Gebäudekomplex des Klosters Santa Maria steht am Steilufer des Natisone im alten langobardischen Viertel Valle. Der Oratorio di Santa Maria aus dem 8. Jahrhundert war möglicherweise eine langobardische Pfalzkapelle; er wird deshalb auch Tempietto longobardo genannt. Dieses Bauwerk hat einen quadratischen Innenraum mit Kreuzgewölbe und ein tonnengewölbtes dreischiffiges Presbyterium mit byzantinisch beeinflussten Stuckverzierungen und Fresken. Das Gewölbefresko des Chores zeigt Christus in der Mandorla umgeben von Heiligen und sechs fein herausgearbeitete vollplastische Figuren von Heiligen. (Siehe auch: Lombardische Präromanik). Mit seinen komplexen Darbietungen ist der Tempietto longobardo als originelles Ensemble, Bestandteil des langobardischen Kulturanteils des italienischen UNESCO-Welterbes.
Weitere Kirchengebäude
Die Kirche San Giovanni in Valle geht auf die Palastkirche des Königshofes der frühen Langobardenzeit zurück.
Die Kirche der Heiligen Petrus und Blasius (Chiesa dei Santi Pietro e Biagio) fällt durch ihre mit Fresken gestaltete Westfassade auf. Sie stammen von 1506–1508 und wurden 2013 restauriert. In einer Seitenkapelle zeigt ein Fresko den hl. Blasius auf einem Thron.
Die Chiesa di San Francesco ist nicht mehr geweiht und wird für Ausstellungen genutzt.
Im Osten oberhalb der Altstadt, unweit der slowenischen Grenze, befindet sich die Kirche Madonna del Monte.
(Wikipedia)
The Stolpersteine project, initiated by the German artist Gunter Demnig in 1992, aims to commemorate individuals at exactly the last place of residency—or, sometimes, work—which was freely chosen by the person before he or she fell victim to Nazi terror, euthanasia, eugenics, was deported to a concentration or extermination camp, or escaped persecution by emigration or suicide. As of 23 October 2018, 70,000 Stolpersteine have been laid, making the Stolpersteine project the world's largest decentralized memorial.
From Wikipedia